All-trans-nonaprenyl diphosphate synthase (geranylgeranyl-diphosphate specific)

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The von Kries Coefficient Law in color adaptation describes the relationship between the illuminant and the human visual system sensitivity.[1] The law accounts for the approximate color constancy in the human visual system.[2] It is the oldest and most widely used law to quantify color adaptation,[3] and is used widely in the field of vision and chromatic adaptation.

The von Kries Coefficient Law compensates for the illumination change using a purely diagonal scaling of the cone absorptions.[4] While the law does not provide a precise indication of the correction, it typically provides a reasonable approximation.

History

Helmholtz and the Young-Hemholtz Theory

The von Kries coefficient law built upon theories and research done by Hermann von Helmholtz. A German physicist and physician, Helmholtz asserted that “the nervous substance in question is less sensitive to reacting light falling on it than the rest of the retina that was not previously stimulated”. Helmholtz, along with Thomas Young, proposed the trichromatic theory, or the Young-Helmholtz theory, that stated that the retina contains three types of cones, which respond to light of three different wavelengths, corresponding to red, green, or blue. Activation of these cones in different combinations and to different degrees results in the perception of other colors.

Experiments

While von Kries and the other researchers did not have the means to test out the results of his stated law, others tested out his coefficient law by estimating the eigenvectors of the measured linear transformations. Many researchers, including Eileen Wassof (1959), Burnham et al. (1957), and Macadam [12] rejected his law as being insufficiently accurate. There were frequently reported systematic discrepancies between prediction and experiment.[5]

Chromatic Adaptation

The law assumes that although the responses of the three cone types (R, G, and B) are affected differently by chromatic adaptation, the spectral sensitivities of each of the three cone mechanisms remains unchanged.[6] Therefore, if one of the three cones are less stimulated than the others, the sensitivity is proportionally reduced. The specific amount that this number is reduced by is inversely related to the relative strengths of activation by the energy distribution of the particular light in question.[7]

Equations

The von Kries coefficient law can be expressed by the following equations:

Rc=R α
Gc=G β
Bc=B γ

, where Rc,Gc, and Bc are the cone responses of the same observer, and R,G, and B are all cone responses of the same observer; the only difference is that Rc,Gc, and Bc are viewed under a reference illuminant while the other set of values is experimental. α, β, and γ are the von Kries coefficients corresponding to the reduction in sensitivity of the three cone mechanisms due to chromatic adaptation.[6]

If Rwr,Gwr, and Bwr are defined as the cone responses for the reference white under the reference and test illuminants, and Rw,Gw, and Bw are cone responses for the test illuminants, then

RRw=RcRwr
GGw=GcGwr
BBw=BcBwr

Using these to solve for the coefficients, we get:

α=RwrRw

β=GwrGw

γ=BwrBw

This law holds for the color space of the cones, although it has been proven applicable to other color spaces.[8]

Evaluation/Effectiveness of Law

Many studies have been conducted to study the precision and applicability of the law. Most studies conclude that the law is a general approximation that cannot take into account all of the specificity needed to get a precise answer; different studies and their results will be summarized below. Wirth, in research done from 1900 to 1903, demonstrated through his studies that the law can be considered “nearly valid for reacting lights that are not too weak”.[6] The theory on sensitivity and reacting light was also evaluated and emphasized by Wright in 1934 studies, where he stated, “Now suppose R’, G’, and B’ are hypothetical stimuli that produce responses along A, B, and C,… three independent set of fibers to the brain. Then a reduction in sensitivity produced by light adaptation will, for a test colour that stimulates A alone, produce an intensity depression of R’ but no colour change; similarly if B or C are stimulated alone.”

The von Kries coefficient law has also been known to be an inaccurate predictor of asymmetric matching experiments.[9] However, this might be seen as a way to moderate color constancy - models display color constancy only as far as the von Kries coefficient law displays color constancy. Therefore, any discrepancies in calculations are due to the visual system behaving in accordance with newer models

Further research by Brian Wandell on Wassof's findings revealed that when objects analyzed by the coefficient law are in the same context, the rates of cone absorption as realized by the law match up with experimental values. However, when the two objects are seen under different illuminants, the cone absorptions do not correlate with the true values. Within each context the observer uses the pattern of cone absorption to infer color appearance, probably by comparing the relative cone absorption rates. Color appearance is an interpretation of the physical properties of the objects in the image.[4]

Prevalence

Applications

Despite the various inconsistencies seen in the von Kries coefficient law, the law is widely used in many color and vision applications and papers. For example, many chromatic adaptation platforms (CATs) are based on the von Kries coefficient law.[6] It has been used in many applications, especially in many psychophisical research. It has been used in applications ranging from psychophysical work by researchers such as Takasari, Judd, and Pearson; it has also been used in electrophysiological experiments.

Alternatives to the von Kries coefficient law, while they have been brought up and studied (for example, Jameson and Hurvich's induced opponent response chromatic adaptation theory), have never reached the level of prevalence found by the simplicity of the von Kries coefficient law.

Nearly all commercial digital cameras use the von Kries coefficient law to model the variation and chromatic adaptation.

von Kries Transform

One of the derivations of the von Kries coefficient law is the von Kries transform, a chromatic adaptation method that is sometimes used in camera image processing. Using the coefficient law, cone responses c from two radiant spectra can be matched by appropriate choice of diagonal adaptation matrices D1 and D2:[10]

c=D1STf1=D2STf2

where S is the cone sensitivity matrix and f is the spectrum of the conditioning stimulus. This leads to the von Kries transform for chromatic adaptation in LMS color space (responses of long-, medium-, and short-wavelength cone response space):

D=D11D2=[L2/L1000M2/M1000S2/S1]

References

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    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

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  5. One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

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    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

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    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  8. One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  9. One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  10. 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534