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Thermoacoustic heat engine: Difference between revisions

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Latest revision as of 04:09, 23 November 2014

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I really hope NO Jordan Shoes For Women

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November 18 Bestaff Australia

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-[[File:Springs 009.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Helix|Helical]] or ''coil'' springs designed for tension.]]
+== I really hope NO Jordan Shoes For Women ==
-[[Image:Ressort de compression.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|A heavy-duty helical spring designed for compression and tension.]]
-[[File:Englishlongbow.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[English longbow]] – a simple but very powerful spring made of [[European Yew|yew]], measuring 2&nbsp;m (6&nbsp;ft 6&nbsp;in) long, with a 470 N (105&nbsp;[[pound-force|lbf]]) draw force]]
-[[File:Federkennlinie.svg|thumb|right|200px|Spring characteristics: (1) progressive, (2) linear, (3) degressive, (4) almost constant, (5) progressive with knee]]
-[[File:Machined Spring.jpg|thumb|A machined spring incorporates several features into one piece of bar stock]]
-[[File:Russian - MUV pull fuze.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Military [[boobytrap]] firing device from USSR (normally connected to a [[tripwire]]) showing spring-loaded [[firing pin]]]]
-A '''spring''' is an [[Elasticity (physics)|elastic]] object used to store mechanical [[energy]]. Springs are usually made out of [[spring steel]]. Small springs can be wound from pre-hardened stock, while larger ones are made from [[annealing (metallurgy)|annealed]] steel and hardened after fabrication. Some [[ferrous|non-ferrous metals]] are also used including [[phosphor bronze]] and [[titanium]] for parts requiring corrosion resistance and [[beryllium copper]] for springs carrying electrical current (because of its low electrical resistance).
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-When a spring is compressed or stretched, the [[force]] it exerts is proportional to its change in length. The ''[[Hooke's law|rate]]'' or ''spring constant'' of a spring is the change in the [[force]] it exerts, divided by the change in [[deflection (engineering)|deflection]] of the spring. That is, it is the [[gradient]] of the force versus deflection [[curve]]. An [[tension (physics)|extension]] or [[compression (physical)|compression]] spring has units of force divided by distance, for example lbf/in or N/m. [[Torsion spring]]s have units of torque divided by angle, such as [[newton metre|N·m]]/[[radian|rad]] or [[ft·lbf]]/degree. The inverse of spring rate is compliance, that is: if a spring has a rate of 10 N/mm, it has a compliance of 0.1&nbsp;mm/N. The stiffness (or rate) of springs in parallel is [[additive function|additive]], as is the compliance of springs in series.
+== I remain disciplined always New Balance Shoes Brisbane ==
-Depending on the design and required operating environment, any material can be used to construct a spring, so long as the material has the required combination of rigidity and elasticity: technically, a wooden [[Bow (weapon)|bow]] is a form of spring.
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-==History==
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-Simple non-coiled springs were used throughout human history e.g.,the [[Bow (weapon)|bow]] (and arrow). In the Bronze Age more sophisticated spring devices were used, as shown by the spread of [[tweezers]] in many cultures. [[Ctesibius of Alexandria]] developed a method for making [[bronze]] with spring-like characteristics by producing an alloy of bronze with an increased proportion of tin, and then hardening it by hammering after it is cast.
-[[Coiled springs]] appeared early in the 15th century,<ref>[http://www.madehow.com/Volume-6/Springs.html Springs] How Products Are Made, 14 July 2007.</ref> in door locks.<ref name="White1966" >{{Cite book
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-| last=White
-| first=Lynn Jr.
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-| title=Medieval Technology and Social Change
-| publisher=Oxford Univ. Press
+   <li>[http://www.zyjddianti.com/news/html/?590163.html http://www.zyjddianti.com/news/html/?590163.html]</li>
-| year=1966
-| location=New York
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-| isbn=0-19-500266-0 }}, p.126-127</ref>  The first spring powered-clocks appeared in that century<ref name="White1966" /><ref>{{Cite book
-| last=Usher
+   <li>[http://www.9combo.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=142923&fromuid=3791 http://www.9combo.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=142923&fromuid=3791]</li>
-| first=Abbot Payson
-| title=A History of Mechanical Inventions
+ </ul>
-| year=1988 | publisher=Courier Dover
-| isbn=0-486-25593-X
-| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC&pg=PA305&sig=_SRpwfz0YBAjt2aGxXhmRkZ16GQ}}, p.305</ref><ref name="Rossum1997">{{Cite book
-| last=Dohrn-van Rossum
-| first=Gerhard
-| title=History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders
-| publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press
-| year=1997
-| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=53K32RiEigMC&pg=PA121&sig=5huN81ukYRbSlxq4MsToTDIXYDY
-| isbn=0-226-15510-2 }}, p.121</ref> and evolved into the first large watches by the 16th century.
-In 1676 British physicist [[Robert Hooke]] discovered the principle behind springs' action, that the force it exerts is proportional to its extension, now called [[Hooke's law]].
+== November 18 Bestaff Australia ==
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-[[File:Alarm Clock Balance Wheel.jpg|thumb|right|180px|A spiral torsion spring, or [[hairspring]], in an [[alarm clock]].]]
-[[File:Volute spring1.jpg|thumb|right|180px|A [[volute spring]]. Under compression the coils slide over each other, so affording longer travel.]]
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-[[File:Volutespring.jpg|right|180px|thumb|Vertical volute springs of [[Stuart tank]]]]
-[[File:Reverb-3.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Tension springs in a folded line reverberation device.]]
+   <li>[http://www.jinxi.gd.cn/news/html/?45084.html http://www.jinxi.gd.cn/news/html/?45084.html]</li>
-[[File:Torsion-Bar with-load.jpg|180px|thumb|right|A torsion bar twisted under load]]
-[[File:leafs1.jpg|right|thumb|180px|[[Leaf spring]] on a truck]]
+   <li>[http://www.mytl.cn/news/html/?79385.html http://www.mytl.cn/news/html/?79385.html]</li>
-Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them:
+   <li>[http://166.111.7.59/luo/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=2598258&fromuid=58863 http://166.111.7.59/luo/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=2598258&fromuid=58863]</li>
-*'''Tension/Extension spring''' – the spring is designed to operate with a [[tension (physics)|tension]] load, so the spring stretches as the load is applied to it.
-*'''Compression spring''' – is designed to operate with a compression load, so the spring gets shorter as the load is applied to it.
+ </ul>
-*'''[[Torsion spring]]''' – unlike the above types in which the load is an axial force, the load applied to a torsion spring is a [[torque]] or twisting force, and the end of the spring rotates through an angle as the load is applied.
-*'''Constant spring''' - supported load will remain the same throughout deflection cycle<ref>[http://www.pipingtech.com/products/constant-springs.htm?utm_source=Main-Nav Constant Springs] Piping Technology and Products, (retrieved March 2012)</ref>
-*'''Variable spring''' - resistance of the coil to load varies during compression<ref>[http://www.pipingtech.com/products/variable-springs.htm?utm_source=Main-Nav Variable Spring Supports] Piping Technology and Products, (retrieved March 2012)</ref>
-They can also be classified based on their shape:
-*'''[[Coil spring]]''' – this type is made of a coil or [[helix]] of wire
-*'''Flat spring''' – this type is made of a flat or conical shaped piece of metal.
-*'''Machined spring''' – this type of spring is manufactured by machining bar stock with a lathe and/or milling operation rather than coiling wire. Since it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition to the elastic element. Machined springs can be made in the typical load cases of compression/extension, torsion, etc.
-The most common types of spring are:
-* '''[[springboard|Cantilever spring]]''' – a spring which is fixed only at one end.
-* '''[[Coil spring]]''' or '''[[helix|helical]] spring''' – a spring (made by winding a wire around a cylinder) and the [[Cone (geometry)|conical]] spring – these are types of [[torsion spring]], because the wire itself is twisted when the spring is compressed or stretched. These are in turn of two types:
-** ''Compression springs'' are designed to become shorter when loaded. Their turns (loops) are not touching in the unloaded position, and they need no attachment points.
-*** A ''[[volute spring]]'' is a compression spring in the form of a cone, designed so that under compression the coils are not forced against each other, thus permitting longer travel.
-** ''Tension'' or ''extension springs'' are designed to become longer under load. Their turns (loops) are normally touching in the unloaded position, and they have a hook, eye or some other means of attachment at each end.
-* '''Hairspring''' or '''[[balance spring]]''' –  a delicate spiral torsion spring used in [[watch]]es, [[galvanometer]]s, and places where electricity must be carried to partially rotating devices such as [[steering wheel]]s without hindering the rotation.
-* '''[[Leaf spring]]''' – a flat spring used in vehicle [[suspension (vehicle)|suspension]]s, electrical [[switch]]es, and [[bow (weapon)|bow]]s.
-* '''V-spring''' – used in antique [[firearm]] mechanisms such as the [[wheellock]], [[flintlock]] and [[percussion cap]] locks.
-Other types include :
-* '''[[Belleville washer]]''' or '''Belleville spring''' – a disc shaped spring commonly used to apply tension to a bolt (and also in the initiation mechanism of pressure-activated [[land mine|landmines]]).
-* '''[[Constant-force spring]]''' — a tightly rolled ribbon that exerts a nearly constant force as it is unrolled.
-* '''[[Gas spring]]''' – a volume of gas which is compressed.
-* '''[[Ideal Spring]]''' – the notional spring used in physics: it has no weight, mass, or damping losses.
-* '''[[Mainspring]]''' – a spiral ribbon shaped spring used as a power source in [[watch]]es, [[clock]]s, [[music box]]es, windup [[toy]]s, and [[mechanically powered flashlight]]s
-* '''[[Constant-force spring|Negator spring]]''' –  a thin metal band slightly concave in cross-section. When coiled it adopts a flat cross-section but when unrolled it returns to its former curve, thus producing a constant force throughout the displacement and ''negating'' any tendency to re-wind. The commonest application is the retracting steel tape rule.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Samuel|first= Andrew|coauthors=Weir, John |title=Introduction to engineering design: modelling, synthesis and problem solving strategies|publisher=Butterworth|location=Oxford, England|year=1999|edition=2|page=134|isbn=0-7506-4282-3}}</ref>
-* '''Progressive rate coil springs''' – A coil spring with a variable rate, usually achieved by having unequal [[Degrees of freedom (mechanics)|pitch]] so that as the spring is compressed one or more coils rests against its neighbour.
-* '''[[Rubber band]]''' – a tension spring where energy is stored by stretching the material.
-* '''Spring [[Washer (mechanical)|washer]]''' – used to apply a constant tensile force along the axis of a [[fastener]].
-* '''[[Torsion spring]]''' –  any spring designed to be twisted rather than compressed or extended. Used in [[Torsion beam suspension|torsion bar]] vehicle suspension systems.
-* '''[[Wave spring]]''' – a thin spring-washer into which waves have been pressed.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Davis|first=Thomas Beiber|coauthors=Nelson, Carl A. Senior|title=Audel Mechanical Trades Pocket Manual|publisher=Wiley|page=275|location=Hoboken, NJ|edition=4|isbn=978-0-7645-4170-4}}</ref>
-==Physics==
-===Hooke's law===
-{{Main|Hooke's law}}
-As long as they are not stretched or compressed beyond their [[elastic limit]], most springs obey Hooke's law, which states that the force with which the spring pushes back is linearly proportional to the distance from its equilibrium length:
-:<math> F=-kx, \ </math>
-where
-: ''x'' is the displacement vector – the distance and direction the spring is deformed from its equilibrium length.
-: ''F'' is the resulting force vector – the magnitude and direction of the restoring force the spring exerts
-: ''k'' is the '''rate''', '''spring constant''' or '''force constant''' of the spring, a constant that depends on the spring's material and construction.  The negative sign indicates that the force the spring exerts is in the opposite direction from its displacement
-[[Coil spring]]s and other common springs typically obey Hooke's law. There are useful springs that don't: springs based on beam bending can for example produce forces that vary [[nonlinear]]ly with displacement.
-===Simple harmonic motion===
-{{Main|Harmonic oscillator}}
-Since force is equal to mass, ''m'', times acceleration, ''a'', the force equation for a spring obeying [[Hooke's law]] looks like:
-:<math>F = m a \quad \Rightarrow \quad -k x = m a. \,</math>
-[[File:Periodampwave.svg|thumb|right|280px|The displacement, ''x'', as a function of time. The amount of time that passes between peaks is called the [[Wave period|period]].]]
-The mass of the spring is assumed small in comparison to the mass of the attached mass and is ignored. Since acceleration is simply the second [[derivative]] of x with respect to time,
-:<math> - k x = m \frac{d^2 x}{dt^2}. \,</math>
-This is a second order linear [[differential equation]] for the displacement <math>x</math> as a function of time. Rearranging:
-:<math>\frac{d^2 x}{dt^2} + \frac{k}{m} x = 0, \,</math>
-the solution of which is the sum of a [[sine]] and [[cosine]]:
-:<math> x(t) = A \sin \left(t \sqrt{\frac{k}{m}} \right) + B \cos \left(t \sqrt{\frac{k}{m}} \right). \, </math>
-<math>A</math> and <math>B</math> are arbitrary constants that may be found by considering the initial displacement and velocity of the mass. The graph of this function with <math>B = 0</math> (zero initial position with some positive initial velocity) is displayed in the image on the right.
-==Theory==
-In [[classical physics]], a spring can be seen as a device that stores [[potential energy]], specifically [[elastic potential energy]], by straining the bonds between the [[atom]]s of an [[Elasticity (physics)|elastic]]  material.
-[[Hooke's law]] of [[theory of elasticity|elasticity]] states that the extension of an elastic rod (its distended length minus its relaxed length) is linearly proportional to its [[Tension (mechanics)|tension]], the [[force]] used to stretch it. Similarly, the contraction (negative extension) is proportional to the [[compression (physical)|compression]] (negative tension).
-This law actually holds only approximately, and only when the deformation (extension or contraction) is small compared to the rod's overall length. For deformations beyond the [[Tensile strength|elastic limit]], atomic bonds get broken or rearranged, and a spring may snap, buckle, or permanently deform. Many materials have no clearly defined elastic limit, and Hooke's law can not be meaningfully applied to these materials. Moreover, for the superelastic materials, the linear relationship between force and displacement is appropriate only in the low-strain region.
-Hooke's law is a mathematical consequence of the fact that the potential energy of the rod is a minimum when it has its relaxed length. Any [[smooth function]] of one variable approximates a [[quadratic function]] when examined near enough to its minimum point as a result of the [[Taylor series]]. Therefore, the force—which is the [[derivative]] of energy with respect to displacement—will approximate a [[linear function]].
-Force of fully compressed spring
-:<math> F_{max} = \frac{E d^4 (L-n d)}{16 (1+\nu) (D-d)^3 n} \ </math>
-where
-: E – [[Young's modulus]]
-: d – spring wire diameter
-: L – free length of spring
-: n – number of active windings
-: <math>\nu</math> – [[Poisson ratio]]
-: D – spring outer diameter
-==Zero-length springs==
-"Zero-length spring" is a term for a specially designed coil spring that would exert zero force if it had zero length. That is, in a line graph of the spring's force versus its length, the line passes through the origin.   Obviously a coil spring cannot contract to zero length because at some point the coils will touch each other and the spring will not be able to shorten any more. Zero length springs are made by manufacturing a coil spring with built-in tension, so if it ''could'' contract further, the equilibrium point of the spring, the point at which its restoring force is zero, occurs at a length of zero.   In practice, zero length springs are made by combining a "negative length" spring, made with even more tension so its equilibrium point would be at a "negative" length, with a piece of inelastic material of the proper length so the zero force point would occur at zero length.
-A zero length spring can be attached to a mass on a hinged boom in such a way that the force on the mass is almost exactly balanced by the vertical component of the force from the spring, whatever the position of the boom. This creates a horizontal "pendulum" with very long oscillation [[period (physics)|period]]. Long-period pendulums enable [[seismometer]]s to sense the slowest waves from earthquakes. The LaCoste suspension with zero-length springs is also used in [[gravimeter]]s because it is very sensitive to changes in gravity. Springs for closing doors are often made to have roughly zero length so that they will exert force even when the door is almost closed, so it will close firmly.
-==Uses==
-{{colbegin|2}}
-* [[Vehicle| Vehicles]]: [[Vehicle suspension]]
-* [[Watch]]es: [[Balance spring]]s in mechanical [[timepiece]]s and spring-loaded bars for attaching the bands and the clasps.
-* Mini Drill
-* [[Jewelry]]: Clasp mechanisms.
-* [[Lock_(device)| Lock]] mechanisms:  Key-recognition and for coordinating the movements of various parts of the lock.
-* Pop-open devices: [[Compact Disc player|CD players]], [[Tape_recorder|Tape recorders]] etc.
-* [[Pen]]s
-* [[Mattress | Spring mattresses]]
-* [[Slinky]]
-* [[Trampoline]]
-* [[Pogo Stick]]
-* [[Whammy bar]]
-* [[Spring reverb]]
-* [[Buckling spring]] keyboards
-* [[Upholstery]]: [[Upholstery coil springs]]
-* [[Toy]]
-* [[Educational]]
-* [[Airsoft gun]]
-* [[Firearms]]
-{{colend}}
-==References==
-{{Reflist}}
-==Further reading==
-* Sclater, Neil. (2011). "Spring and screw devices and mechanisms." ''Mechanisms and Mechanical Devices Sourcebook.'' 5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 279-299. ISBN 9780071704427. Drawings and designs of various spring and screw mechanisms.
-* Parmley, Robert. (2000). "Section 16: Springs." ''Illustrated Sourcebook of Mechanical Components.'' New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0070486174 Drawings, designs and discussion of various springs and spring mechanisms.
-==External links==
-{{Commons|Spring (device)|Spring (device)}}
-*{{Cite web
-|last=Paredes
-|first=Manuel
-|year=2013
-|title=How to design springs
-|publisher=insa de toulouse
-|url=http://www.meca.insa-toulouse.fr/~paredes/Springs2K/index.php
-|accessdate=13 November 2013}}
-{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2013}}
-*{{Cite web
-|last=Wright
-|first=Douglas
-|title=Introduction to Springs
-|work=[http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/DANotes/springs/home.html Springs], [http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/DANotes/ Notes on Design and Analysis of Machine Elements]
-|publisher=Department of Mechanical & Material Engineering, [[University of Western Australia]]
-|url=http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/DANotes/springs/intro/intro.html
-|accessdate=3 February 2008}}
-*{{Cite web
-|last=Silberstein
-|first=Dave
-|year=2002
-|title=How to make springs
-|publisher=Bazillion
-|url=http://home.earthlink.net/~bazillion/intro.html
-|accessdate=3 February 2008}}
-{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}
-{{DEFAULTSORT:Spring (Device)}}
-[[Category:Springs (mechanical)]]

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