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[[File:Savery-engine.jpg|225px|right|thumb|The 1698 '''Savery Engine''' – the world's first commercially-useful [[steam engine]]: built by [[Thomas Savery]]]]
{{thermodynamics|cTopic=History and Culture}}
The '''history of thermodynamics''' is a fundamental strand in the [[history of physics]], the [[history of chemistry]], and the [[history of science]] in general. Owing to the relevance of [[thermodynamics]] in much of [[science]] and [[technology]], its history is finely woven with the developments of [[classical mechanics]], [[quantum mechanics]], [[magnetism]], and [[chemical kinetics]], to more distant applied fields such as [[meteorology]], [[information theory]], and [[biology]] ([[physiology]]), and to [[technology|technological]] developments such as the [[steam engine]], [[internal combustion engine]], [[cryogenics]] and [[electricity generation]]. The development of thermodynamics both drove and was driven by [[atomic theory]]. It also, albeit in a subtle manner, motivated new directions in [[probability]] and [[statistics]]; see, for example, the [[timeline of thermodynamics]].
 
==History==
{{See also|Timeline of thermodynamics}}
 
===Contributions from ancient and medieval times===
{{See also|History of heat|Vacuum}}
 
The ancients viewed [[heat]] as that related to [[fire]]. In 3000 BC, the [[ancient Egypt]]ians viewed heat as related to origin mythologies.<ref name="Griffith">{{cite journal | author = J. Gwyn Griffiths | year = 1955 | title = The Orders of Gods in Greece and Egypt (According to Herodotus) | journal = The Journal of Hellenic Studies | volume = 75 | pages = 21–23 | doi = 10.2307/629164 | jstor=629164}}</ref> 
In the [[western philosophy|Western philosophical]] tradition, after much debate about the primal element among earlier [[pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic philosopher]]s, [[Empedocles]] proposed a four-element theory, in which all substances derive from [[earth (classical element)|earth]], [[water (classical element)|water]], [[air (classical element)|air]], and [[fire (classical element)|fire]]. The Empedoclean element of fire is perhaps the principal ancestor of later concepts such as [[phlogiston]] and [[caloric theory|caloric]].  Around 500 BC, the [[Greek philosophy|Greek philosopher]] [[Heraclitus]] became famous as the "flux and fire" philosopher for his proverbial utterance: "All things are flowing." Heraclitus argued that the three [[classical elements|principal elements]] in nature were fire, earth, and water.
[[File:Thermally Agitated Molecule.gif|266px|thumb|left|'''Heating''' a body, such as a segment of [[protein]] [[alpha helix]] (above), tends to cause its atoms to vibrate more, and to expand or change [[Phase (matter)|phase]], if heating is continued; an axiom of nature noted by [[Herman Boerhaave]] in the in 1700s.]]
 
[[Atomism]] is a central part of today's relationship between thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Ancient thinkers such as [[Leucippus]] and [[Democritus]], and later the [[Epicureans]], by advancing atomism, laid the foundations for the later [[atomic theory]]. Until experimental proof of [[atoms]] was later provided in the 20th century, the atomic theory was driven largely by philosophical considerations and scientific intuition. Consequently, ancient philosophers used atomic theory to reach conclusions that today may be viewed as immature: for example, Democritus gives a vague atomistic description of the soul, namely that it is "built from thin, smooth, and round atoms, similar to those of fire".
 
The 5th century BC, Greek philosopher [[Parmenides]], in his only known work, a poem conventionally titled ''On Nature'', uses verbal reasoning to postulate that a void, essentially what is now known as a [[vacuum]], in nature could not occur. This view was supported by the arguments of [[Aristotle]], but was criticized by [[Leucippus]] and [[Hero of Alexandria]].  From antiquity to the Middle Ages various arguments were put forward to prove or disapprove the existence of a vacuum and several attempts were made to construct a vacuum but all proved unsuccessful.
 
The European scientists [[Cornelius Drebbel]], [[Robert Fludd]], [[Galileo Galilei]] and [[Santorio Santorio]] in the 16th and 17th centuries were able to gauge the relative "[[coldness]]" or "[[hotness]]" of air, using a rudimentary air [[thermometer]] (or [[thermoscope]]). This may have been influenced by an earlier device which could expand and contract the air constructed by [[Philo of Byzantium]] and [[Hero of Alexandria]].
 
Around 1600, the English philosopher and scientist [[Francis Bacon]] surmised: "Heat itself, its essence and quiddity is motion and nothing else."  In 1643, [[Galileo Galilei]], while generally accepting the 'sucking' explanation of ''horror vacui'' proposed by Aristotle, believed that nature’s vacuum-abhorrence is limited.  Pumps operating in mines had already proven that nature would only fill a vacuum with water up to a height of ~30 feet.  Knowing this curious fact, Galileo encouraged his former pupil [[Evangelista Torricelli]] to investigate these supposed limitations.  Torricelli did not believe that vacuum-abhorrence (''[[Horror vacui]]'') in the sense of Aristotle's 'sucking' perspective, was responsible for raising the water.  Rather, he reasoned, it was the result of the pressure  exerted on the liquid by the surrounding air.
 
To prove this theory, he filled a long glass tube (sealed at one end) with mercury and upended it into a dish also containing mercury.  Only a portion of the tube emptied (as shown adjacent); ~30&nbsp;inches of the liquid remained. As the mercury emptied, and a [[vacuum]] was created at the top of the tube.  This, the first man-made vacuum, effectively disproved Aristotle’s 'sucking' theory and affirmed the existence of vacuums in nature.  The gravitational force on the heavy element that is Mercury prevented it from filling the vacuum.  Nature may abhor a vacuum, but gravity does not care.
 
=== Transition from chemistry to thermochemistry ===
{{See also|History of chemistry}}
[[File:Ice-calorimeter.jpg|150px|right|thumb|The world’s first '''ice-calorimeter''', used in the winter of 1782-83, by [[Antoine Lavoisier]] and [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]], to determine the [[heat]] evolved in various [[chemical change]]s; calculations which were based on [[Joseph Black]]’s prior discovery of [[latent heat]].  These experiments mark the foundation of [[thermochemistry]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}]]
The theory of phlogiston arose in the 17th century, late in the period of alchemy. Its replacement by [[caloric theory]] in the 18th century is one of the historical markers of the transition from alchemy to chemistry.  Phlogiston was a hypothetical substance that was presumed to be liberated from combustible substances during [[combustion|burning]], and from [[metal]]s during the process of [[rusting]].  Caloric, like phlogiston, was also presumed to be the "substance" of heat that would flow from a hotter body to a cooler body, thus warming it.
 
The first substantial experimental challenges to caloric theory arose in [[Benjamin Thompson|Rumford]]'s 1798 work, when he showed that boring [[cast iron]] [[cannon]]s produced great amounts of heat which he ascribed to [[friction]], and his work was among the first to undermine the caloric theory. The development of the [[steam engine]] also focused attention on [[calorimetry]] and the amount of heat produced from different types of [[coal]]. The first quantitative research on the heat changes during chemical reactions was initiated by [[Lavoisier]] using an [[ice]] [[calorimeter]] following research by [[Joseph Black]] on the [[latent heat]] of water.
 
More quantitative studies by [[James Prescott Joule]] in 1843 onwards provided soundly reproducible phenomena, and helped to place the subject of thermodynamics on a solid footing. [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]], for example, was still trying to explain Joule's observations within a caloric framework as late as 1850. The utility and explanatory power of [[kinetic theory]], however, soon started to displace caloric and it was largely obsolete by the end of the 19th century. [[Joseph Black]] and [[Lavoisier]] made important contributions in the precise measurement of heat changes using the [[calorimeter]], a subject which became known as [[thermochemistry]].
 
=== Phenomenological thermodynamics ===
[[File:Robert Boyle 0001.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Robert Boyle. 1627-1691]]
*[[Boyle's law]] (1662)
*[[Charles's law]] was first published by [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] in 1802, but he referenced unpublished work by [[Jacques Charles]] from around 1787. The relationship had been anticipated by the work of [[Guillaume Amontons]] in 1702.
*[[Gay-Lussac's law]] (1802)
 
===Birth of thermodynamics as science===
At its origins, thermodynamics was the study of [[engines]].  A precursor of the engine was designed by the German scientist [[Otto von Guericke]] who, in 1650, designed and built the world's first [[vacuum pump]] and created the world's first ever [[vacuum]] known as the [[Magdeburg hemispheres]].  He was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove [[Aristotle]]'s long-held supposition that [[Horror vacui (physics)|'Nature abhors a vacuum']].
 
Shortly thereafter, Irish physicist and chemist [[Robert Boyle]] had learned of Guericke's designs and in 1656, in coordination with English scientist [[Robert Hooke]], built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed the pressure-volume correlation: P.V=constant. In that time, air was assumed to be a system of motionless particles, and not interpreted as a system of moving molecules. The concept of thermal motion came two centuries later.  Therefore Boyle's publication in 1660 speaks about a mechanical concept: the air spring.<ref>New Experiments physico-mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects (1660). [http://www.imss.fi.it/vuoto/eboyle.html]</ref> Later, after the invention of the thermometer, the property temperature could be quantified. This tool gave [[Gay-Lussac]] the opportunity to derive his law, which led shortly later to the [[ideal gas law]].  But, already before the establishment of the ideal gas law, an associate of Boyle's named [[Denis Papin]] built in 1679 a bone digester, which is a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confines steam until a high pressure is generated.
 
Later designs implemented a steam release valve to keep the machine from exploding.  By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and cylinder engine.  He did not however follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin’s designs, engineer [[Thomas Savery]] built the first engine. Although these early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time. One such scientist was [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]], the “father of thermodynamics”, who in 1824 published ''“[[Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire]]”,'' a discourse on heat, power, and engine efficiency.  This marks the start of thermodynamics as a modern science.
 
[[File:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A [[Watt steam engine]], the [[steam engine]] that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world]]
 
Hence, prior to 1698 and the invention of the [[steam engine|Savery Engine]], horses were used to power pulleys, attached to buckets, which lifted water out of flooded salt mines in England. In the years to follow, more variations of steam engines were built, such as the [[newcomen steam engine|Newcomen Engine]], and later the [[watt steam engine|Watt Engine]]. In time, these early engines would eventually be utilized in place of horses.  Thus, each engine began to be associated with a certain amount of "horse power" depending upon how many horses it had replaced. The main problem with these first engines was that they were slow and clumsy, converting less than 2% of the input [[fuel]] into useful work.  In other words, large quantities of coal (or wood) had to be burned to yield only a small fraction of work output.  Hence the need for a new science of engine [[dynamics (mechanics)|dynamics]] was born.
 
[[File:Carnot2.jpg|150px|left|thumb|Sadi Carnot (1796-1832): the "father" of thermodynamics]]
Most cite [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot’s]] [http://www.thermohistory.com/carnot.pdf 1824 paper] ''Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire'' as the starting point for thermodynamics as a modern science.  Carnot defined "motive power" to be the expression of the ''useful effect'' that a motor is capable of producing.  Herein, Carnot introduced us to the first modern day definition of "[[Mechanical work|work]]": ''weight lifted through a height''.  The desire to understand, via formulation, this ''useful effect'' in relation to "work" is at the core of all modern day thermodynamics.
 
In 1843, [[James Joule]] experimentally found the [[mechanical equivalent of heat]]. In 1845, Joule reported his best-known experiment, involving the use of a falling weight to spin a paddle-wheel in a barrel of water, which allowed him to estimate a mechanical equivalent of heat of 819&nbsp;ft·lbf/Btu (4.41 J/cal). This led to the theory of conservation of energy and explained why heat can do a work.<ref>[http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/mechanical_equivalent_of_heat.html James Prescott Joule: The Discovery of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat]</ref>
 
The name "thermodynamics," however, did not arrive until 1849, when the British mathematician and physicist [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]] (Lord Kelvin) coined the term ''thermodynamics'' in a paper on the efficiency of steam engines.
 
In 1850, the famed mathematical physicist [[Rudolf Clausius]] defined the term entropy '''''S''''' to be the heat lost or turned into waste, stemming from the Greek word ''entrepein'' meaning ''to turn''.
 
<!--  Commented out because image was deleted: [[File:Baron Kelvin.jpg|thumb|right|Lord Kelvin {{Deletable image-caption|date=May 2012}}]] -->
In association with Clausius, in 1871, a Scottish mathematician and physicist [[James Clerk Maxwell]] formulated a new branch of thermodynamics called ''Statistical Thermodynamics'', which functions to analyze large numbers of particles at [[thermodynamic equilibrium|equilibrium]], i.e., systems where no changes are occurring, such that only their average properties as temperature '''''T''''', pressure '''''P''''', and volume '''''V''''' become important.
 
Soon thereafter, in 1875, the Austrian physicist [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] formulated a precise connection between entropy '''''S''''' and molecular motion:
 
:<math>S=k\log W  \,</math>
 
being defined in terms of the number of possible states [W] such motion could occupy, where k is the [[Boltzmann's constant]]. 
 
The following year, 1876, was a seminal point in the development of human thought.  During this essential period, chemical engineer [[Willard Gibbs]], the first person in America to be awarded a PhD in engineering (Yale), published an obscure 300-page paper titled: ''On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances'', wherein he formulated one grand equality, the [[Gibbs free energy]] equation, which gives a measure the amount of "useful work" attainable in reacting systems.  Gibbs also originated the concept we now know as [[enthalpy]] '''''H''''', calling it "a heat function for constant pressure".<ref>{{cite book|last=Laidler|first1=Keith|authorlink=Keith J. Laidler|title=The World of Physical Chemistry|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|page=110}}</ref> 
The modern word ''enthalpy'' would be coined many years later by [[Heike Kamerlingh Onnes]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/ed079p697 |last=Howard|first=Irmgard |year=2002|title=H Is for Enthalpy, Thanks to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Alfred W. Porter|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|publisher=ACS Publications|volume=79|issue=6|pages=697|url=http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed079p697|bibcode = 2002JChEd..79..697H }}</ref>
who based it on the Greek word ''enthalpein'' meaning ''to warm''.
 
Building on these foundations, those as [[Lars Onsager]], [[Erwin Schrödinger]], and [[Ilya Prigogine]], and others, functioned to bring these engine "concepts" into the thoroughfare of almost every modern-day branch of science.
 
=== Kinetic theory ===
{{main|Kinetic theory}}
 
The idea that [[heat]] is a form of [[Motion (physics)|motion]] is perhaps an ancient one and is certainly discussed by [[Francis Bacon]] in 1620 in his ''Novum Organum''. The first written scientific reflection on the microscopic nature of heat is probably to be found in a work by [[Mikhail Lomonosov]], in which he wrote:
 
:"(..) movement should not be denied based on the fact it is not seen. Who would deny that the leaves of trees move when rustled by a wind, despite it being unobservable from large distances? Just as in this case motion remains hidden due to perspective, it remains hidden in warm bodies due to the extremely small sizes of the moving particles. In both cases, the viewing angle is so small that neither the object nor their movement can be seen."
 
During the same years, [[Daniel Bernoulli]] published his book ''Hydrodynamics'' (1738), in which he derived an equation for the pressure of a gas considering the collisions of its atoms with the walls of a container. He proves that this pressure is two thirds the average kinetic energy of the gas in a unit volume. Bernoulli's ideas, however, made little impact on the dominant caloric culture. Bernoulli made a connection with [[Gottfried Leibniz]]'s ''[[vis viva]]'' principle, an early formulation of the principle of [[conservation of energy]], and the two theories became intimately entwined throughout their history. Though Benjamin Thompson suggested that heat was a form of motion as a result of his experiments in 1798, no attempt was made to reconcile theoretical and experimental approaches, and it is unlikely that he was thinking of the ''vis viva'' principle.
 
[[John Herapath]] later independently formulated a kinetic theory in 1820, but mistakenly associated temperature with [[momentum]] rather than ''vis viva'' or [[kinetic energy]]. His work ultimately failed [[peer review]] and was neglected. [[John James Waterston]] in 1843 provided a largely accurate account, again independently, but his work received the same reception, failing peer review even from someone as well-disposed to the kinetic principle as Davy.
 
Further progress in kinetic theory started only in the middle of the 19th century, with the works of [[Rudolf Clausius]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], and [[Ludwig Boltzmann]]. In his 1857 work ''On the nature of the motion called heat'', Clausius for the first time clearly states that heat is the average kinetic energy of molecules. This interested Maxwell, who in 1859 derived the momentum distribution later named after him. Boltzmann subsequently generalized his distribution for the case of gases in external fields.
 
Boltzmann is perhaps the most significant contributor to kinetic theory, as he introduced many of the fundamental concepts in the theory. Besides the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution]] mentioned above, he also associated the kinetic energy of particles with their [[degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degrees of freedom]]. The [[Boltzmann equation]] for the distribution function of a gas in non-equilibrium states is still the most effective equation for studying transport phenomena in gases and metals. By introducing the concept of [[Statistical mechanics|thermodynamic probability]] as the number of microstates corresponding to the current macrostate, he showed that its logarithm is proportional to entropy.
 
== Branches of ==
The following list gives a rough outline as to when the major branches of thermodynamics came into inception:
 
* [[Thermochemistry]] - 1780s
* [[Classical thermodynamics]] - 1824
* [[Chemical thermodynamics]] - 1876
* [[Statistical mechanics]] - c. 1880s
* [[Equilibrium thermodynamics]]
* Engineering thermodynamics
* Chemical engineering thermodynamics - c. 1940s
* [[Non-equilibrium thermodynamics]] - 1941
* Small systems thermodynamics - 1960s
* [[Biological thermodynamics]] - 1957
* Ecosystem thermodynamics - 1959
* Relativistic thermodynamics - 1965
* [[Quantum thermodynamics]] - 1968
* [[Black hole thermodynamics]] - c. 1970s
* Geological thermodynamics - c. 1970s
* Biological evolution thermodynamics - 1978
* Geochemical thermodynamics - c. 1980s
* [[Atmospheric thermodynamics]] - c. 1980s
* Natural systems thermodynamics - 1990s
* Supramolecular thermodynamics - 1990s
* Earthquake thermodynamics - 2000
* Drug-receptor thermodynamics - 2001
* Pharmaceutical systems thermodynamics – 2002
 
Ideas from thermodynamics have also been applied in other fields, for example:
* [[Thermoeconomics]] - c. 1970s
 
== Entropy and the second law ==
{{Main|History of entropy}}
Even though he was working with the caloric theory, [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] in 1824 suggested that some of the caloric available for generating useful work is lost in any real process. In March 1851, while grappling to come to terms with the work of [[James Prescott Joule]], [[Lord Kelvin]] started to speculate that there was an inevitable loss of useful heat in all processes. The idea was framed even more dramatically by [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] in 1854, giving birth to the spectre of the [[heat death of the universe]].
 
In 1854, [[William John Macquorn Rankine]] started to make use in calculation of what he called his ''thermodynamic function''. This has subsequently been shown to be identical to the concept of [[entropy]] formulated by [[Rudolf Clausius]] in 1865. Clausius used the concept to develop his classic statement of the [[second law of thermodynamics]] the same year.
 
== Heat transfer ==
{{Main|Heat transfer}}
 
The phenomenon of [[heat conduction]] is immediately grasped in everyday life. In 1701, Sir [[Isaac Newton]] published his [[Heat transfer#Newton's law of cooling|law of cooling]]. However, in the 17th century, it came to be believed that all materials had an identical conductivity and that differences in sensation arose from their different [[heat capacity|heat capacities]].
 
Suggestions that this might not be the case came from the new science of [[electricity]] in which it was easily apparent that some materials were good electrical conductors while others were effective insulators. [[Jan Ingen-Housz]] in 1785-9 made some of the earliest measurements, as did Benjamin Thompson during the same period.
 
The fact that warm air rises and the importance of the phenomenon to meteorology was first realised by [[Edmund Halley]] in 1686. Sir [[John Leslie (physicist)|John Leslie]] observed that the cooling effect of a stream of air increased with its [[speed]], in 1804.
 
[[Carl Wilhelm Scheele]] distinguished heat transfer by [[thermal radiation]] (radiant heat) from that by convection and conduction in 1777. In 1791, [[Pierre Prévost]] showed that all bodies radiate heat, no matter how hot or cold they are. In 1804, Leslie observed that a matt black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of [[black body radiation]]. Though it had become to be suspected even from Scheele's work, in 1831 [[Macedonio Melloni]] demonstrated that black body radiation could be [[reflection (physics)|reflected]], [[refraction|refracted]] and [[polarisation (waves)|polarised]] in the same way as [[light]].
 
[[James Clerk Maxwell]]'s 1862 insight that both light and radiant heat were forms of [[electromagnetic wave]] led to the start of the [[quantitative property|quantitative]] analysis of thermal radiation. In 1879, [[Jožef Stefan]] observed that the total [[radiant flux]] from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature and stated the [[Stefan–Boltzmann law]]. The law was derived theoretically by [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] in 1884.
 
== Cryogenics ==
 
In 1702 [[Guillaume Amontons]] introduced the concept of [[absolute zero]] based on observations of [[gas]]es. In 1810, Sir John Leslie froze water to ice artificially. The idea of absolute zero was generalised in 1848 by Lord Kelvin. In 1906, [[Walther Nernst]] stated the [[third law of thermodynamics]].
 
== See also ==
* [[Conservation of energy#Historical development|Conservation of energy: Historical development]]
* [[History of Chemistry]]
* [[History of Physics]]
* [[Maxwell's thermodynamic surface]]
* [[Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes]]
* [[Thermodynamics]]
* [[Timeline of heat engine technology]]
* [[Timeline of low-temperature technology]]
 
==References==
<references />
 
== Further reading ==
* {{cite book | author=Cardwell, D.S.L. | title=From Watt to Clausius: The Rise of Thermodynamics in the Early Industrial Age | publisher=Heinemann | location=London | year=1971 | isbn=0-435-54150-1}}
* {{cite book | author=Leff, H.S. & Rex, A.F. (eds) | title=Maxwell's Demon: Entropy, Information and Computing | publisher=Adam Hilger | location=Bristol | year=1990 | isbn=0-7503-0057-4}}
 
== External links ==
*[http://history.hyperjeff.net/statmech History of Statistical Mechanics and Thermodynamics] - Timeline (1575 to 1980) @ Hyperjeff.net
*[http://www.mhtl.uwaterloo.ca/courses/me354/history.html History of Thermodynamics] - University of Waterloo
*[http://www.wolframscience.com/reference/notes/1019b Thermodynamic History Notes] - WolframScience.com
*[http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/courses/classes/E-115/Slides/A_Brief_History_of_Thermodynamics.pdf Brief History of Thermodynamics] - Berkeley [PDF]
*[http://thermodynamicstudy.net/history.html History of Thermodynamics] - ThermodynamicStudy.net
*[http://che.konyang.ac.kr/COURSE/thermo/history/therm_his.html Historical Background of Thermodynamics] - Carnegie-Mellon University
*[http://www.nt.ntnu.no/users/haugwarb/Presentations/History%20of%20Thermodynamics/ History of Thermodynamics] - In Pictures
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Thermodynamics}}
[[Category:History of thermodynamics| ]]

Revision as of 12:02, 2 March 2013

The 1698 Savery Engine – the world's first commercially-useful steam engine: built by Thomas Savery

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my web-site; cheap psychic readings [netwk.hannam.ac.kr] The history of thermodynamics is a fundamental strand in the history of physics, the history of chemistry, and the history of science in general. Owing to the relevance of thermodynamics in much of science and technology, its history is finely woven with the developments of classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, magnetism, and chemical kinetics, to more distant applied fields such as meteorology, information theory, and biology (physiology), and to technological developments such as the steam engine, internal combustion engine, cryogenics and electricity generation. The development of thermodynamics both drove and was driven by atomic theory. It also, albeit in a subtle manner, motivated new directions in probability and statistics; see, for example, the timeline of thermodynamics.

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The ancients viewed heat as that related to fire. In 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians viewed heat as related to origin mythologies.[1] In the Western philosophical tradition, after much debate about the primal element among earlier pre-Socratic philosophers, Empedocles proposed a four-element theory, in which all substances derive from earth, water, air, and fire. The Empedoclean element of fire is perhaps the principal ancestor of later concepts such as phlogiston and caloric. Around 500 BC, the Greek philosopher Heraclitus became famous as the "flux and fire" philosopher for his proverbial utterance: "All things are flowing." Heraclitus argued that the three principal elements in nature were fire, earth, and water.

Heating a body, such as a segment of protein alpha helix (above), tends to cause its atoms to vibrate more, and to expand or change phase, if heating is continued; an axiom of nature noted by Herman Boerhaave in the in 1700s.

Atomism is a central part of today's relationship between thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Ancient thinkers such as Leucippus and Democritus, and later the Epicureans, by advancing atomism, laid the foundations for the later atomic theory. Until experimental proof of atoms was later provided in the 20th century, the atomic theory was driven largely by philosophical considerations and scientific intuition. Consequently, ancient philosophers used atomic theory to reach conclusions that today may be viewed as immature: for example, Democritus gives a vague atomistic description of the soul, namely that it is "built from thin, smooth, and round atoms, similar to those of fire".

The 5th century BC, Greek philosopher Parmenides, in his only known work, a poem conventionally titled On Nature, uses verbal reasoning to postulate that a void, essentially what is now known as a vacuum, in nature could not occur. This view was supported by the arguments of Aristotle, but was criticized by Leucippus and Hero of Alexandria. From antiquity to the Middle Ages various arguments were put forward to prove or disapprove the existence of a vacuum and several attempts were made to construct a vacuum but all proved unsuccessful.

The European scientists Cornelius Drebbel, Robert Fludd, Galileo Galilei and Santorio Santorio in the 16th and 17th centuries were able to gauge the relative "coldness" or "hotness" of air, using a rudimentary air thermometer (or thermoscope). This may have been influenced by an earlier device which could expand and contract the air constructed by Philo of Byzantium and Hero of Alexandria.

Around 1600, the English philosopher and scientist Francis Bacon surmised: "Heat itself, its essence and quiddity is motion and nothing else." In 1643, Galileo Galilei, while generally accepting the 'sucking' explanation of horror vacui proposed by Aristotle, believed that nature’s vacuum-abhorrence is limited. Pumps operating in mines had already proven that nature would only fill a vacuum with water up to a height of ~30 feet. Knowing this curious fact, Galileo encouraged his former pupil Evangelista Torricelli to investigate these supposed limitations. Torricelli did not believe that vacuum-abhorrence (Horror vacui) in the sense of Aristotle's 'sucking' perspective, was responsible for raising the water. Rather, he reasoned, it was the result of the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding air.

To prove this theory, he filled a long glass tube (sealed at one end) with mercury and upended it into a dish also containing mercury. Only a portion of the tube emptied (as shown adjacent); ~30 inches of the liquid remained. As the mercury emptied, and a vacuum was created at the top of the tube. This, the first man-made vacuum, effectively disproved Aristotle’s 'sucking' theory and affirmed the existence of vacuums in nature. The gravitational force on the heavy element that is Mercury prevented it from filling the vacuum. Nature may abhor a vacuum, but gravity does not care.

Transition from chemistry to thermochemistry

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The world’s first ice-calorimeter, used in the winter of 1782-83, by Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace, to determine the heat evolved in various chemical changes; calculations which were based on Joseph Black’s prior discovery of latent heat. These experiments mark the foundation of thermochemistry.Potter or Ceramic Artist Truman Bedell from Rexton, has interests which include ceramics, best property developers in singapore developers in singapore and scrabble. Was especially enthused after visiting Alejandro de Humboldt National Park.

The theory of phlogiston arose in the 17th century, late in the period of alchemy. Its replacement by caloric theory in the 18th century is one of the historical markers of the transition from alchemy to chemistry. Phlogiston was a hypothetical substance that was presumed to be liberated from combustible substances during burning, and from metals during the process of rusting. Caloric, like phlogiston, was also presumed to be the "substance" of heat that would flow from a hotter body to a cooler body, thus warming it.

The first substantial experimental challenges to caloric theory arose in Rumford's 1798 work, when he showed that boring cast iron cannons produced great amounts of heat which he ascribed to friction, and his work was among the first to undermine the caloric theory. The development of the steam engine also focused attention on calorimetry and the amount of heat produced from different types of coal. The first quantitative research on the heat changes during chemical reactions was initiated by Lavoisier using an ice calorimeter following research by Joseph Black on the latent heat of water.

More quantitative studies by James Prescott Joule in 1843 onwards provided soundly reproducible phenomena, and helped to place the subject of thermodynamics on a solid footing. William Thomson, for example, was still trying to explain Joule's observations within a caloric framework as late as 1850. The utility and explanatory power of kinetic theory, however, soon started to displace caloric and it was largely obsolete by the end of the 19th century. Joseph Black and Lavoisier made important contributions in the precise measurement of heat changes using the calorimeter, a subject which became known as thermochemistry.

Phenomenological thermodynamics

Robert Boyle. 1627-1691

Birth of thermodynamics as science

At its origins, thermodynamics was the study of engines. A precursor of the engine was designed by the German scientist Otto von Guericke who, in 1650, designed and built the world's first vacuum pump and created the world's first ever vacuum known as the Magdeburg hemispheres. He was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that 'Nature abhors a vacuum'.

Shortly thereafter, Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle had learned of Guericke's designs and in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed the pressure-volume correlation: P.V=constant. In that time, air was assumed to be a system of motionless particles, and not interpreted as a system of moving molecules. The concept of thermal motion came two centuries later. Therefore Boyle's publication in 1660 speaks about a mechanical concept: the air spring.[2] Later, after the invention of the thermometer, the property temperature could be quantified. This tool gave Gay-Lussac the opportunity to derive his law, which led shortly later to the ideal gas law. But, already before the establishment of the ideal gas law, an associate of Boyle's named Denis Papin built in 1679 a bone digester, which is a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confines steam until a high pressure is generated.

Later designs implemented a steam release valve to keep the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and cylinder engine. He did not however follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin’s designs, engineer Thomas Savery built the first engine. Although these early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time. One such scientist was Sadi Carnot, the “father of thermodynamics”, who in 1824 published “Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire”, a discourse on heat, power, and engine efficiency. This marks the start of thermodynamics as a modern science.

A Watt steam engine, the steam engine that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world

Hence, prior to 1698 and the invention of the Savery Engine, horses were used to power pulleys, attached to buckets, which lifted water out of flooded salt mines in England. In the years to follow, more variations of steam engines were built, such as the Newcomen Engine, and later the Watt Engine. In time, these early engines would eventually be utilized in place of horses. Thus, each engine began to be associated with a certain amount of "horse power" depending upon how many horses it had replaced. The main problem with these first engines was that they were slow and clumsy, converting less than 2% of the input fuel into useful work. In other words, large quantities of coal (or wood) had to be burned to yield only a small fraction of work output. Hence the need for a new science of engine dynamics was born.

Sadi Carnot (1796-1832): the "father" of thermodynamics

Most cite Sadi Carnot’s 1824 paper Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire as the starting point for thermodynamics as a modern science. Carnot defined "motive power" to be the expression of the useful effect that a motor is capable of producing. Herein, Carnot introduced us to the first modern day definition of "work": weight lifted through a height. The desire to understand, via formulation, this useful effect in relation to "work" is at the core of all modern day thermodynamics.

In 1843, James Joule experimentally found the mechanical equivalent of heat. In 1845, Joule reported his best-known experiment, involving the use of a falling weight to spin a paddle-wheel in a barrel of water, which allowed him to estimate a mechanical equivalent of heat of 819 ft·lbf/Btu (4.41 J/cal). This led to the theory of conservation of energy and explained why heat can do a work.[3]

The name "thermodynamics," however, did not arrive until 1849, when the British mathematician and physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) coined the term thermodynamics in a paper on the efficiency of steam engines.

In 1850, the famed mathematical physicist Rudolf Clausius defined the term entropy S to be the heat lost or turned into waste, stemming from the Greek word entrepein meaning to turn.

In association with Clausius, in 1871, a Scottish mathematician and physicist James Clerk Maxwell formulated a new branch of thermodynamics called Statistical Thermodynamics, which functions to analyze large numbers of particles at equilibrium, i.e., systems where no changes are occurring, such that only their average properties as temperature T, pressure P, and volume V become important.

Soon thereafter, in 1875, the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann formulated a precise connection between entropy S and molecular motion:

S=klog⁡W

being defined in terms of the number of possible states [W] such motion could occupy, where k is the Boltzmann's constant.

The following year, 1876, was a seminal point in the development of human thought. During this essential period, chemical engineer Willard Gibbs, the first person in America to be awarded a PhD in engineering (Yale), published an obscure 300-page paper titled: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, wherein he formulated one grand equality, the Gibbs free energy equation, which gives a measure the amount of "useful work" attainable in reacting systems. Gibbs also originated the concept we now know as enthalpy H, calling it "a heat function for constant pressure".[4] The modern word enthalpy would be coined many years later by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes,[5] who based it on the Greek word enthalpein meaning to warm.

Building on these foundations, those as Lars Onsager, Erwin Schrödinger, and Ilya Prigogine, and others, functioned to bring these engine "concepts" into the thoroughfare of almost every modern-day branch of science.

Kinetic theory

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The idea that heat is a form of motion is perhaps an ancient one and is certainly discussed by Francis Bacon in 1620 in his Novum Organum. The first written scientific reflection on the microscopic nature of heat is probably to be found in a work by Mikhail Lomonosov, in which he wrote:

"(..) movement should not be denied based on the fact it is not seen. Who would deny that the leaves of trees move when rustled by a wind, despite it being unobservable from large distances? Just as in this case motion remains hidden due to perspective, it remains hidden in warm bodies due to the extremely small sizes of the moving particles. In both cases, the viewing angle is so small that neither the object nor their movement can be seen."

During the same years, Daniel Bernoulli published his book Hydrodynamics (1738), in which he derived an equation for the pressure of a gas considering the collisions of its atoms with the walls of a container. He proves that this pressure is two thirds the average kinetic energy of the gas in a unit volume. Bernoulli's ideas, however, made little impact on the dominant caloric culture. Bernoulli made a connection with Gottfried Leibniz's vis viva principle, an early formulation of the principle of conservation of energy, and the two theories became intimately entwined throughout their history. Though Benjamin Thompson suggested that heat was a form of motion as a result of his experiments in 1798, no attempt was made to reconcile theoretical and experimental approaches, and it is unlikely that he was thinking of the vis viva principle.

John Herapath later independently formulated a kinetic theory in 1820, but mistakenly associated temperature with momentum rather than vis viva or kinetic energy. His work ultimately failed peer review and was neglected. John James Waterston in 1843 provided a largely accurate account, again independently, but his work received the same reception, failing peer review even from someone as well-disposed to the kinetic principle as Davy.

Further progress in kinetic theory started only in the middle of the 19th century, with the works of Rudolf Clausius, James Clerk Maxwell, and Ludwig Boltzmann. In his 1857 work On the nature of the motion called heat, Clausius for the first time clearly states that heat is the average kinetic energy of molecules. This interested Maxwell, who in 1859 derived the momentum distribution later named after him. Boltzmann subsequently generalized his distribution for the case of gases in external fields.

Boltzmann is perhaps the most significant contributor to kinetic theory, as he introduced many of the fundamental concepts in the theory. Besides the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution mentioned above, he also associated the kinetic energy of particles with their degrees of freedom. The Boltzmann equation for the distribution function of a gas in non-equilibrium states is still the most effective equation for studying transport phenomena in gases and metals. By introducing the concept of thermodynamic probability as the number of microstates corresponding to the current macrostate, he showed that its logarithm is proportional to entropy.

Branches of

The following list gives a rough outline as to when the major branches of thermodynamics came into inception:

Ideas from thermodynamics have also been applied in other fields, for example:

Entropy and the second law

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Even though he was working with the caloric theory, Sadi Carnot in 1824 suggested that some of the caloric available for generating useful work is lost in any real process. In March 1851, while grappling to come to terms with the work of James Prescott Joule, Lord Kelvin started to speculate that there was an inevitable loss of useful heat in all processes. The idea was framed even more dramatically by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1854, giving birth to the spectre of the heat death of the universe.

In 1854, William John Macquorn Rankine started to make use in calculation of what he called his thermodynamic function. This has subsequently been shown to be identical to the concept of entropy formulated by Rudolf Clausius in 1865. Clausius used the concept to develop his classic statement of the second law of thermodynamics the same year.

Heat transfer

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The phenomenon of heat conduction is immediately grasped in everyday life. In 1701, Sir Isaac Newton published his law of cooling. However, in the 17th century, it came to be believed that all materials had an identical conductivity and that differences in sensation arose from their different heat capacities.

Suggestions that this might not be the case came from the new science of electricity in which it was easily apparent that some materials were good electrical conductors while others were effective insulators. Jan Ingen-Housz in 1785-9 made some of the earliest measurements, as did Benjamin Thompson during the same period.

The fact that warm air rises and the importance of the phenomenon to meteorology was first realised by Edmund Halley in 1686. Sir John Leslie observed that the cooling effect of a stream of air increased with its speed, in 1804.

Carl Wilhelm Scheele distinguished heat transfer by thermal radiation (radiant heat) from that by convection and conduction in 1777. In 1791, Pierre Prévost showed that all bodies radiate heat, no matter how hot or cold they are. In 1804, Leslie observed that a matt black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black body radiation. Though it had become to be suspected even from Scheele's work, in 1831 Macedonio Melloni demonstrated that black body radiation could be reflected, refracted and polarised in the same way as light.

James Clerk Maxwell's 1862 insight that both light and radiant heat were forms of electromagnetic wave led to the start of the quantitative analysis of thermal radiation. In 1879, Jožef Stefan observed that the total radiant flux from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature and stated the Stefan–Boltzmann law. The law was derived theoretically by Ludwig Boltzmann in 1884.

Cryogenics

In 1702 Guillaume Amontons introduced the concept of absolute zero based on observations of gases. In 1810, Sir John Leslie froze water to ice artificially. The idea of absolute zero was generalised in 1848 by Lord Kelvin. In 1906, Walther Nernst stated the third law of thermodynamics.

See also

References

  1. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  2. ↑ New Experiments physico-mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects (1660). [1]
  3. ↑ James Prescott Joule: The Discovery of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
  4. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  5. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang

Further reading

  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
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