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| '''Polyhedral combinatorics''' is a branch of [[mathematics]], within [[combinatorics]] and [[discrete geometry]], that studies the problems of counting and describing the faces of [[convex polyhedron|convex polyhedra]] and higher dimensional [[convex polytope]]s.
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| Research in polyhedral combinatorics falls into two distinct areas. Mathematicians in this area study the [[combinatorics]] of polytopes; for instance, they seek [[inequality (mathematics)|inequalities]] that describe the relations between the numbers of vertices, edges, and faces of higher dimensions in arbitrary polytopes or in certain important subclasses of polytopes, and study other combinatorial properties of polytopes such as their [[Connectivity (graph theory)|connectivity]] and [[diameter]] (number of steps needed to reach any vertex from any other vertex). Additionally, many computer scientists use the phrase “polyhedral combinatorics” to describe research into precise descriptions of the faces of certain specific polytopes (especially 0-1 polytopes, whose vertices are subsets of a [[hypercube]]) arising from [[integer programming]] problems.
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| ==Faces and face-counting vectors==
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| [[File:Pyramid face lattice.svg|thumb|The [[face lattice]] of a convex polytope.]]
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| A ''face'' of a convex polytope ''P'' may be defined as the intersection of ''P'' and a closed halfspace ''H'' such that the boundary of ''H'' contains no interior point of ''P''. The dimension of a face is the dimension of this hull. The 0-dimensional faces are the vertices themselves, and the 1-dimensional faces (called ''edges'') are [[line segment]]s connecting pairs of vertices. Note that this definition also includes as faces the empty set and the whole polytope ''P''. If ''P'' itself has dimension ''d'', the faces of ''P'' with dimension ''d'' − 1 are called ''facets'' of ''P'' and the faces with dimension ''d'' − 2 are called ''ridges''.<ref>{{harvtxt|Ziegler|1995}}, p. 51.</ref> The faces of ''P'' may be [[partial order|partially ordered]] by inclusion, forming a [[face lattice]] that has as its top element ''P'' itself and as its bottom element the empty set.
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| A key tool in polyhedral combinatorics is the ''ƒ-vector'' of a polytope,<ref>{{harvtxt|Ziegler|1995}}, pp. 245–246.</ref> the vector (''f''<sub>0</sub>, ''f''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''f''<sub>''d'' − 1</sub>) where ''f<sub>i</sub>'' is the number of ''i''-dimensional features of the polytope. For instance, a [[cube]] has eight vertices, twelve edges, and six facets, so its ƒ-vector is (8,12,6). The [[dual polyhedron|dual polytope]] has a ƒ-vector with the same numbers in the reverse order; thus, for instance, the [[regular octahedron]], the dual to a cube, has the ƒ-vector (6,12,8). The ''extended ƒ-vector'' is formed by concatenating the number one at each end of the ƒ-vector, counting the number of objects at all levels of the face lattice; on the left side of the vector, ''f''<sub>-1</sub> = 1 counts the empty set as a face, while on the right side, ''f<sub>d</sub>'' = 1 counts ''P'' itself.
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| For the cube the extended ƒ-vector is (1,8,12,6,1) and for the octahedron it is (1,6,12,8,1). Although the vectors for these example polyhedra are [[unimodal]] (the coefficients, taken in left to right order, increase to a maximum and then decrease), there are higher dimensional polytopes for which this is not true.<ref>{{harvtxt|Ziegler|1995}}, p. 272.</ref>
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| For [[simplicial polytope]]s (polytopes in which every facet is a [[simplex]]), it is often convenient to transform these vectors, producing a different vector called the ''h''-vector. If we interpret the terms of the ƒ-vector (omitting the final 1) as coefficients of a polynomial ƒ(''x'') = Σ''f<sub>i</sub>x''<sup>''d'' − ''i'' − 1</sup> (for instance, for the octahedron this gives the polynomial ƒ(''x'') = ''x''<sup>3</sup> + 6''x''<sup>2</sup> + 12''x'' + 8), then the ''h''-vector lists the coefficients of the polynomial ''h''(''x'') = ƒ(''x'' − 1) (again, for the octahedron, ''h''(''x'') = ''x''<sup>3</sup> + 3''x''<sup>2</sup> + 3''x'' + 1).<ref name="ds">{{harvtxt|Ziegler|1995}}, pp. 246–253.</ref> As Ziegler writes, “for various problems about simplicial polytopes, ''h''-vectors are a much more convenient and concise way to encode the information about the face numbers than ƒ-vectors.”
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| ==Equalities and inequalities==
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| The most important relation among the coefficients of the ƒ-vector of a polytope is [[Euler characteristic|Euler's formula]] Σ(−1)<sup>''i''</sup>''f<sub>i</sub>'' = 0, where the terms of the sum range over the coefficients of the extended ƒ-vector. In three dimensions, moving the two 1's at the left and right ends of the extended ƒ-vector (1, ''v'', ''e'', ''f'', 1) to the right hand side of the equation transforms this identity into the more familiar form ''v'' − ''e'' + ''f'' = 2. From the fact that each facet of a three-dimensional polyhedron has at least three edges, it follows by [[Double counting (proof technique)|double counting]] that 2''e'' ≥ 3''f''<!-- each face has at least 3 edges, but each edge is on exactly 2 faces -->, and using this inequality to eliminate ''e'' and ''f'' from Euler's formula leads to the further inequalities ''e'' ≤ 3''v'' − 6<!-- e+2=v+f≤v+(2/3)e, so e≤3v-6 --> and ''f'' ≤ 2''v'' − 4<!-- v+f=e+2≥(3/2)f+2, so 2v-4 ≥ f -->. By duality, ''e'' ≤ 3''f'' − 6 and ''v'' ≤ 2''f'' − 4. It follows from [[Steinitz's theorem]] that any 3-dimensional integer vector satisfying these equalities and inequalities is the ƒ-vector of a convex polyhedron.<ref>{{harvtxt|Steinitz|1906}}.</ref>
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| In higher dimensions, other relations among the numbers of faces of a polytope become important as well, including the [[Dehn–Sommerville equations]] which, expressed in terms of [[h-vector|''h''-vectors]] of simplicial polytopes, take the simple form ''h''<sub>''k''</sub> = ''h''<sub>''d'' − ''k''</sub> for all ''k''. The instance of these equations with ''k'' = 0 is equivalent to Euler's formula but for ''d'' > 3 the other instances of these equations are linearly independent of each other and constrain the ''h''-vectors (and therefore also the ƒ-vectors) in additional ways.<ref name="ds"/>
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| Another important inequality on polytope face counts is given by the [[upper bound theorem]], first proven by {{harvtxt|McMullen|1970}}, which states that a ''d''-dimensional polytope with ''n'' vertices can have at most as many faces of any other dimension as a [[neighborly polytope]] with the same number of vertices:
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| :<math>f_{k-1} \le \sum_{i=0}^{d/2} {}^* \left( \binom{d-i}{k-i}+\binom{i}{k-d+i} \right) \binom{n-d-1+i}{i},</math>
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| where the asterisk means that the final term of the sum should be halved when ''d'' is even.<ref>{{harvtxt|Ziegler|1995}}, pp. 254–258.</ref> Asymptotically, this implies that there are at most <math>\scriptstyle O(n^{\lfloor d/2\rfloor})</math> faces of all dimensions.
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| Even in four dimensions, the set of possible ƒ-vectors of convex polytopes does not form a convex subset of the four-dimensional integer lattice, and much remains unknown about the possible values of these vectors.<ref>{{harvtxt|Höppner|Ziegler|2000}}.</ref>
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| ==Graph-theoretic properties==
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| Along with investigating the numbers of faces of polytopes, researchers have studied other combinatorial properties of them, such as descriptions of the [[undirected graph|graphs]] obtained from the vertices and edges of polytopes (their [[n-skeleton|1-skeleta]]).
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| [[Balinski's theorem]] states that the graph obtained in this way from any ''d''-dimensional convex polytope is [[k-vertex-connected graph|''d''-vertex-connected]].<ref>{{harvtxt|Balinski|1961}}; {{harvtxt|Ziegler|1995}}, pp. 95–96.</ref> In the case of three-dimensional polyhedra, this property and [[planar graph|planarity]] may be used to exactly characterize the graphs of polyhedra: [[Steinitz's theorem]] states that ''G'' is the skeleton of a three-dimensional polyhedron if and only if ''G'' is a 3-vertex-connected planar graph.<ref>{{harvtxt|Ziegler|1995}}, pp. 103–126.</ref>
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| A theorem of Blind and Mani states that one can reconstruct the face structure of a [[simple polytope]] from its graph. This is in sharp contrast with (non-simple) neighborly polytopes whose graph is a [[complete graph]]. An elegant proof is due to [[Gil Kalai|Kalai]] and a [[polynomial time]] algorithm to recognize a face was recently found by Friedman.<ref>E.J. Friedman, Finding a simple polytope from its graph in polynomial time, to appear in ''Discrete Comput. Geom.''</ref>
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| In the context of the [[simplex method]] for [[linear programming]], it is important to understand the [[diameter]] of a polytope, the minimum number of edges needed to reach any vertex by a path from any other vertex. The system of [[linear inequality|linear inequalities]] of a linear program define facets of a polytope representing all feasible solutions to the program, and the simplex method finds the optimal solution by following a path in this polytope. Thus, the diameter provides a [[lower bound]] on the number of steps this method requires.
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| ==Facets of 0-1 polytopes==
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| It is important in the context of [[cutting-plane method]]s for [[integer programming]] to be able to describe accurately the [[facet (geometry)|facets]] of polytopes that have vertices corresponding to the solutions of combinatorial optimization problems. Often, these problems have solutions that can be described by [[Bit array|binary vectors]], and the corresponding polytopes have vertex coordinates that are all zero or one.
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| As an example, consider the [[Birkhoff polytope]], the set of ''n'' × ''n'' matrices that can be formed from [[convex combination]]s of [[permutation matrices]]. Equivalently, its vertices can be thought of as describing all [[perfect matching]]s in a [[complete bipartite graph]], and a linear optimization problem on this polytope can be interpreted as a bipartite minimum weight perfect matching problem. The ''Birkhoff–von Neumann theorem'' states that this polytope can be described by two types of linear inequality or equality. First, for each matrix cell, there is a constraint that this cell has a non-negative value. And second, for each row or column of the matrix, there is a constraint that the sum of the cells in that row or column equal one. The row and column constraints define a linear subspace of dimension ''n''<sup>2</sup> − 2''n'' + 1 in which the Birkhoff polytope lies, and the non-negativity constraints define facets of the Birkhoff polytope within that subspace.
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| However, the Birkhoff polytope is unusual in that a complete description of its facets is available. For many other 0-1 polytopes, there are exponentially many or superexponentially many facets, and only partial descriptions of their facets are available.<ref>{{harvtxt|Ziegler|2000}}.</ref>
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| == See also ==
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| * [[Abstract polytope]]
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| * [[Combinatorial commutative algebra]]
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| * [[Simplicial sphere]]
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| ==Notes==
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| {{reflist|3}}
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| ==References==
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| *{{citation
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| | last = Balinski | first = Michel L. | authorlink = Michel Balinski
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| | journal = Pacific Journal of Mathematics
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| | pages = 431–434
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| | title = On the graph structure of convex polyhedra in n-space
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| | volume = 11
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| | year = 1961}}.
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| *{{citation
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| | last1 = Cook | first1 = William
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| | last2 = Seymour | first2 = Paul D. | author2-link = Paul Seymour (mathematician)
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| | isbn = 978-0-8218-6591-0
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| | publisher = [[American Mathematical Society]]
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| | series = DIMACS Series in Discrete Mathematics and Theoretical Computer Science
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| | title = Polyhedral Combinatorics
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| | year = 1989}}.
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| *{{citation
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| | last1 = Höppner | first1 = Andrea
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| | last2 = Ziegler | first2 = Günter M. | author2-link = Günter M. Ziegler
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| | title = A census of flag-vectors of 4-polytopes
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| | year = 2000}}. In {{harvtxt|Kalai|Ziegler|2000}}, pp. 105–110.
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| *{{citation
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| | last1 = Kalai | first1 = Gil | author1-link = Gil Kalai
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| | last2 = Ziegler | first2 = Günter M. | author2-link = Günter M. Ziegler
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| | isbn = 978-3-7643-6351-2
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| | publisher = Birkhäuser
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| | series = DMV Seminar
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| | title = Polytopes: Combinatorics and Computation
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| | volume = 29
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| | year = 2000}}.
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| *{{citation
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| | doi = 10.1112/S0025579300002850
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| | last = McMullen | first = Peter | authorlink = Peter McMullen
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| | journal = Mathematika
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| | pages = 179–184
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| | title = The maximum numbers of faces of a convex polytope
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| | volume = 17
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| | year = 1970}}.
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| *{{citation
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| | last = Schrijver | first = Alexander | authorlink = Alexander Schrijver
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| | publisher = Centrum voor Wiskunde en Informatica
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| | title = Polyhedral Combinatorics
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| | year = 1987}}.
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| *{{citation
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| | last = Steinitz | first = Ernst | author-link = Ernst Steinitz
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| | journal = Archiv für Mathematik und Physik
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| | pages = 86–88
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| | title = Über die Eulerschen Polyederrelationen
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| | volume = 11
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| | year = 1906}}.
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| *{{citation
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| | last = Ziegler | first = Günter M. | author-link = Günter M. Ziegler
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| | isbn = 0-387-94365-X
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| | publisher = Springer-Verlag
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| | series = Graduate Texts in Mathematics
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| | title = Lectures on Polytopes
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| | volume = 152
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| | year = 1995}}.
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| *{{citation
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| | last = Ziegler | first = Günter M. | author-link = Günter M. Ziegler
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| | title = Lectures on 0-1 polytopes
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| | year = 2000}}. In {{harvtxt|Kalai|Ziegler|2000}}.
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| ==External links==
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| *{{citation
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| | url=http://gilkalai.wordpress.com/2008/05/07/five-open-problems-regarding-convex-polytopes/
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| | title = Five Open Problems Regarding Convex Polytopes
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| | first = Gil | last = Kalai | year = 2008}}.
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| [[Category:Polyhedral combinatorics| ]]
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