Small-angle scattering - Revision history

192.109.31.138: /* Theory */ URL of Feigin & Svergun 1987 updated

2014-07-21T13:07:21Z

Theory: URL of Feigin & Svergun 1987 updated

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:07, 21 July 2014
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~The~~ '''Plateau–Rayleigh instability''', often just called the '''Rayleigh instability''', explains why and how a falling stream of fluid breaks up into smaller packets with the same volume but less surface area. ~~It is related to the [[Rayleigh–Taylor instability]] and~~ is ~~part of~~ a ~~greater branch of fluid dynamics concerned with [[fluid thread breakup]]~~. ~~This fluid instability~~ is ~~exploited in the design of a particular type of [[Ink jet#Continuous ink jet\|ink jet technology]] whereby a jet of liquid is perturbed into a steady stream of [[droplets]].~~		I'm Yoshiko Oquendo. My job is a messenger. Kansas is where her house is but she requirements to move simply because of her family. To play croquet is some thing that I've done for many years.<br><br>Also visit my site [http://Vozdemujer.net/index.php?mod=users&action=view&id=5527 extended car warranty]

	The driving force of the Plateau–Rayleigh instability is that liquids, by virtue of their [[surface tension]]s, tend to minimize their surface area. A considerable amount of work has been done recently on the final pinching profile by attacking it with [[self similar]] solutions.<ref name="Papageorgiou1995"/><ref name="Eggers1997"/>

	~~==History==~~

	The Plateau–Rayleigh instability is named for [[Joseph Plateau]] and [[John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh\|Lord Rayleigh]]. In 1873, Plateau found experimentally that a vertically falling stream of water will break up into drops if its wavelength is greater than about 3.13 to 3.18 times its diameter.<ref>[http://arxiv.org/abs/math/9701214 Retardation of Plateau–Rayleigh Instability: A Distinguishing Characteristic Among Perfectly Wetting Fluids] by John McCuan. Retrieved 1/19/2007.</ref> Later, Rayleigh showed theoretically that a vertically falling column of non-viscous liquid with a circular cross-section should break up into drops if its wavelength exceeded its circumference.<ref>[http://sundoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/diss-online/05/05H104/t3.pdf See page 23 of this pdf] Retrieved 1/19/2007.</ref>

	~~==Theory==~~
	[[File:SurfTensWavyJet.svg\|thumb\|240px\|right\|Intermediate stage of a jet breaking into drops. Radii of curvature in the axial direction are shown. Equation for the radius of the stream is <math>\scriptstyle R\left( z \right) \;=\; R_0 \,+\, A_k \cos \left( kz \right)</math>, where <math>\scriptstyle R_0</math> is the radius of the unperturbed stream, <math>\scriptstyle A_k</math> is the amplitude of the perturbation, <math>\scriptstyle z</math> is distance along the axis of the stream, and <math>\scriptstyle k</math> is the wave number]]

	The explanation of this instability begins with the existence of tiny perturbations in the stream.<ref name="cwp">{{cite book\|title=Capillary and Wetting Phenomena — Drops, Bubbles, Pearls, Waves\|author1=Pierre-Gilles de Gennes \| authorlink1=Pierre-Gilles de Gennes \| author2=Françoise Brochard-Wyart \| author3=David Quéré \| publisher=Springer \| year=2002 \| translator=Alex Reisinger \| isbn=0-387-00592-7}}</ref><ref name="white">{{cite book\|last=White\|first=Harvey E.\|title=Modern College Physics\|publisher=van Nostrand\|year=1948\|isbn=0-442-29401-8}}</ref> These are always present, no matter how smooth the stream is. If the perturbations are resolved into [[Sine wave\|sinusoidal]] components, we find that some components grow with time while others decay with time. Among those that grow with time, some grow at faster rates than others. Whether a component decays or grows, and how fast it grows is entirely a function of its wave number (a measure of how many peaks and troughs per centimeter) and the radius of the original cylindrical stream. The diagram to the right shows an exaggeration of a single component.

	~~By assuming that all possible components exist initially in roughly equal (~~but minuscule) amplitudes, the size of the final drops can be predicted by determining by wave number which component grows the fastest. As time progresses, it is the component whose growth rate is maximum that will come to dominate and will eventually be the one that pinches the stream into drops.<ref name="MIT5">{{cite web\|url=http://web.mit.edu/1.63/www/Lec-notes/Surfacetension/Lecture5.pdf\|format=PDF\|title=MIT Lecture Notes on Surface Tension, lecture 5\|accessdate=April 1, 2007\|date=May 2004\|publisher=Massachusetts Institute of ~~Technology\|author=John W. M~~. ~~Bush}}</ref>~~

	Although a thorough understanding of how this happens requires a mathematical development (see references<ref name="cwp"/><ref name="MIT5"/>), the diagram can provide a conceptual understanding. Observe the two bands shown girdling the stream—one at a peak and the other at a trough of the wave. At the trough, the radius of the stream is smaller, hence according to the [[Young–Laplace equation]] (discussed above){{where\|date=October 2011}} the pressure due to surface tension is increased. Likewise at the peak the radius of the stream is greater and, by the same reasoning, pressure due to surface tension is reduced. If this were the only effect, we would expect that the higher pressure in the trough would squeeze liquid into the lower pressure region in the peak. In this way we see how the wave grows in amplitude over time.

	But the [[Young-Laplace equation]] is influenced by two separate radius components. In this case one is the radius, already discussed, of the stream itself. The other is the radius of curvature of the wave itself. The fitted arcs in the diagram show these at a peak and at a trough. Observe that the radius of curvature at the trough is, in fact, negative, meaning that~~, according to Young-Laplace, it actually ''decreases~~'' the pressure in the trough. Likewise the radius of curvature at the peak is positive and increases the pressure in that region. The effect of these components is opposite the effects of the radius of the stream itself.

	The two effects, in general, do not exactly cancel. One of them will have greater magnitude than the other, depending upon wave number and the initial radius of the stream. When the wave number is such that the radius of curvature of the wave dominates that of the radius of the stream, such components will decay over time. When the effect of the radius of the stream dominates that of the curvature of the wave, such components grow exponentially with time.

	~~When all the math is~~ done, it is found that unstable components (that is, components that grow over time) are only those where the product of the wave number with the initial radius is less than unity (<math>\scriptstyle kR_0 \;<\; 1</math>). The component that grows the fastest is the one whose wave number satisfies the equation:<ref name="MIT5"/>

	~~::<math> kR_0 \;\simeq\; 0.697</math>~~

	~~==Examples==~~
	~~===Water dripping from a faucet/tap===~~
	~~[[File:Water drop animation enhanced small.gif\|thumb\|Water dropping from a tap.]]~~
	A special case of this is the formation of small [[droplets]] when water is dripping from a faucet/tap. When a segment of water begins to separate from the faucet, a neck is formed and then stretched. If the diameter of the faucet is big enough, the neck doesn't get sucked back in, and it undergoes a Plateau–Rayleigh instability and collapses into a small droplet.

	~~===Urination===~~
	~~{{see\|Urination}}~~
	~~Another everyday example of Plateau–Rayleigh instability occurs in urination, particularly standing male urination.<ref>[http://splashlab.byu~~.~~edu/2013/11/06/urinal-dynamics-a-tactical-guide/ Urinal Dynamics: a tactical guide], Splash Lab~~<~~/ref~~><~~ref~~>[http://~~phys~~.~~org~~/news/2013-11-university-physicists-urine-splash-back-tactics.html University physicists study urine splash-back and offer best tactics for men (w/ Video)], Bob Yirka, Phys.org, Nov 07, 2013</ref> The stream of urine experiences instability after about 15 cm (6 inches), breaking into droplets, which causes significant splash-back on impacting a surface. By contrast, if the stream contacts a surface while still in a stable state – such as by urinating directly against a urinal or wall – splash-back is almost completely eliminated.

	~~==Notes==~~
	~~{{Reflist\|~~
	~~<ref name="Eggers1997">{{cite doi\|10~~.~~1103/RevModPhys.69.865}}</ref>~~
	~~<ref name~~=~~"Papageorgiou1995">{{cite doi\|10.1063/1.868540}}</ref>~~
	}}

	==~~External links==~~
	~~{{Commons category\|Plateau-Rayleigh instability}}~~
	*[http://www.roentzsch.org/Rayleigh/index.html Plateau–Rayleigh Instability – a 3D lattice kinetic Monte Carlo simulation]
	*[http://gfs.sourceforge.net/examples/examples/plateau.html Savart–Plateau–Rayleigh instability of a water column – Adaptive numerical simulation]
	*[http://web.mit.edu/1.63/www/Lec-notes/Surfacetension/Lecture5.pdf An MIT lecture on falling fluid jets, including the Plateau -Rayleigh instability] Pdf form, quite mathematical.

	~~{{DEFAULTSORT:Plateau-Rayleigh Instability}}~~
	~~[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]~~
	~~[[Category:Fluid dynamic instability]~~]

137.224.252.10 at 15:14, 14 November 2013

2013-11-14T15:14:23Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:14, 14 November 2013
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~Nice~~ ~~car warranty~~ to ~~satisfy you~~, my name is [http://~~Blog~~.~~caranddriver~~.~~com~~/~~buying~~-~~peace~~-of-~~mind~~-~~how~~-to-~~buy~~-a-~~used~~-~~car~~-~~warranty~~/ ~~Araceli Oquendo~~] ~~but I don't like when people use my full title~~. ~~She~~ is ~~presently~~ a ~~cashier~~ but ~~soon [~~http://~~elearning~~.~~qamtraining~~.~~net~~/~~UserProfile~~/~~tabid~~/42/~~userId~~/~~141840~~/~~language~~/en-US/~~Default~~.~~aspx extended auto warranty~~] ~~car warranty she~~'~~ll be on her own~~. ~~Alabama is~~ [http://~~schnitzls-superdudes~~.de/~~index~~/~~users~~/~~view~~/id/~~18715 extended auto warranty~~] ~~car warranty exactly where he and his~~ [http://~~www.consumerreports~~.org/~~cro~~/~~magazine/2014/04/extended~~-~~warranties~~-~~for~~-~~cars~~-~~are~~-an-~~expensive~~-~~game~~/ ~~spouse live~~] ~~and he has everything that he requirements there~~. The ~~car warranty favorite pastime for my children and me~~ is ~~dancing and now I'm trying to make money with it~~.<br><br>~~Feel free to surf to my homepage~~: [http://~~www~~.~~Harrietoneilllaw~~.~~com~~/~~node~~/~~495947 extended auto warranty~~]		The '''Plateau–Rayleigh instability''', often just called the '''Rayleigh instability''', explains why and how a falling stream of fluid breaks up into smaller packets with the same volume but less surface area. It is related to the [[Rayleigh–Taylor instability]] and is part of a greater branch of fluid dynamics concerned with [[fluid thread breakup]]. This fluid instability is exploited in the design of a particular type of [[Ink jet#Continuous ink jet\|ink jet technology]] whereby a jet of liquid is perturbed into a steady stream of [[droplets]].

			The driving force of the Plateau–Rayleigh instability is that liquids, by virtue of their [[surface tension]]s, tend to minimize their surface area. A considerable amount of work has been done recently on the final pinching profile by attacking it with [[self similar]] solutions.<ref name="Papageorgiou1995"/><ref name="Eggers1997"/>

			==History==

			The Plateau–Rayleigh instability is named for [[Joseph Plateau]] and [[John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh\|Lord Rayleigh]]. In 1873, Plateau found experimentally that a vertically falling stream of water will break up into drops if its wavelength is greater than about 3.13 to 3.18 times its diameter.<ref>[http://arxiv.org/abs/math/9701214 Retardation of Plateau–Rayleigh Instability: A Distinguishing Characteristic Among Perfectly Wetting Fluids] by John McCuan. Retrieved 1/19/2007.</ref> Later, Rayleigh showed theoretically that a vertically falling column of non-viscous liquid with a circular cross-section should break up into drops if its wavelength exceeded its circumference.<ref>[http://sundoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/diss-online/05/05H104/t3.pdf See page 23 of this pdf] Retrieved 1/19/2007.</ref>

			==Theory==
			[[File:SurfTensWavyJet.svg\|thumb\|240px\|right\|Intermediate stage of a jet breaking into drops. Radii of curvature in the axial direction are shown. Equation for the radius of the stream is <math>\scriptstyle R\left( z \right) \;=\; R_0 \,+\, A_k \cos \left( kz \right)</math>, where <math>\scriptstyle R_0</math> is the radius of the unperturbed stream, <math>\scriptstyle A_k</math> is the amplitude of the perturbation, <math>\scriptstyle z</math> is distance along the axis of the stream, and <math>\scriptstyle k</math> is the wave number]]

			The explanation of this instability begins with the existence of tiny perturbations in the stream.<ref name="cwp">{{cite book\|title=Capillary and Wetting Phenomena — Drops, Bubbles, Pearls, Waves\|author1=Pierre-Gilles de Gennes \| authorlink1=Pierre-Gilles de Gennes \| author2=Françoise Brochard-Wyart \| author3=David Quéré \| publisher=Springer \| year=2002 \| translator=Alex Reisinger \| isbn=0-387-00592-7}}</ref><ref name="white">{{cite book\|last=White\|first=Harvey E.\|title=Modern College Physics\|publisher=van Nostrand\|year=1948\|isbn=0-442-29401-8}}</ref> These are always present, no matter how smooth the stream is. If the perturbations are resolved into [[Sine wave\|sinusoidal]] components, we find that some components grow with time while others decay with time. Among those that grow with time, some grow at faster rates than others. Whether a component decays or grows, and how fast it grows is entirely a function of its wave number (a measure of how many peaks and troughs per centimeter) and the radius of the original cylindrical stream. The diagram to the right shows an exaggeration of a single component.

			By assuming that all possible components exist initially in roughly equal (but minuscule) amplitudes, the size of the final drops can be predicted by determining by wave number which component grows the fastest. As time progresses, it is the component whose growth rate is maximum that will come to dominate and will eventually be the one that pinches the stream into drops.<ref name="MIT5">{{cite web\|url=http://web.mit.edu/1.63/www/Lec-notes/Surfacetension/Lecture5.pdf\|format=PDF\|title=MIT Lecture Notes on Surface Tension, lecture 5\|accessdate=April 1, 2007\|date=May 2004\|publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|author=John W. M. Bush}}</ref>

			Although a thorough understanding of how this happens requires a mathematical development (see references<ref name="cwp"/><ref name="MIT5"/>), the diagram can provide a conceptual understanding. Observe the two bands shown girdling the stream—one at a peak and the other at a trough of the wave. At the trough, the radius of the stream is smaller, hence according to the [[Young–Laplace equation]] (discussed above){{where\|date=October 2011}} the pressure due to surface tension is increased. Likewise at the peak the radius of the stream is greater and, by the same reasoning, pressure due to surface tension is reduced. If this were the only effect, we would expect that the higher pressure in the trough would squeeze liquid into the lower pressure region in the peak. In this way we see how the wave grows in amplitude over time.

			But the [[Young-Laplace equation]] is influenced by two separate radius components. In this case one is the radius, already discussed, of the stream itself. The other is the radius of curvature of the wave itself. The fitted arcs in the diagram show these at a peak and at a trough. Observe that the radius of curvature at the trough is, in fact, negative, meaning that, according to Young-Laplace, it actually ''decreases'' the pressure in the trough. Likewise the radius of curvature at the peak is positive and increases the pressure in that region. The effect of these components is opposite the effects of the radius of the stream itself.

			The two effects, in general, do not exactly cancel. One of them will have greater magnitude than the other, depending upon wave number and the initial radius of the stream. When the wave number is such that the radius of curvature of the wave dominates that of the radius of the stream, such components will decay over time. When the effect of the radius of the stream dominates that of the curvature of the wave, such components grow exponentially with time.

			When all the math is done, it is found that unstable components (that is, components that grow over time) are only those where the product of the wave number with the initial radius is less than unity (<math>\scriptstyle kR_0 \;<\; 1</math>). The component that grows the fastest is the one whose wave number satisfies the equation:<ref name="MIT5"/>

			::<math> kR_0 \;\simeq\; 0.697</math>

			==Examples==
			===Water dripping from a faucet/tap===
			[[File:Water drop animation enhanced small.gif\|thumb\|Water dropping from a tap.]]
			A special case of this is the formation of small [[droplets]] when water is dripping from a faucet/tap. When a segment of water begins to separate from the faucet, a neck is formed and then stretched. If the diameter of the faucet is big enough, the neck doesn't get sucked back in, and it undergoes a Plateau–Rayleigh instability and collapses into a small droplet.

			===Urination===
			{{see\|Urination}}
			Another everyday example of Plateau–Rayleigh instability occurs in urination, particularly standing male urination.<ref>[http://splashlab.byu.edu/2013/11/06/urinal-dynamics-a-tactical-guide/ Urinal Dynamics: a tactical guide], Splash Lab</ref><ref>[http://phys.org/news/2013-11-university-physicists-urine-splash-back-tactics.html University physicists study urine splash-back and offer best tactics for men (w/ Video)], Bob Yirka, Phys.org, Nov 07, 2013</ref> The stream of urine experiences instability after about 15 cm (6 inches), breaking into droplets, which causes significant splash-back on impacting a surface. By contrast, if the stream contacts a surface while still in a stable state – such as by urinating directly against a urinal or wall – splash-back is almost completely eliminated.

			==Notes==
			{{Reflist\|
			<ref name="Eggers1997">{{cite doi\|10.1103/RevModPhys.69.865}}</ref>
			<ref name="Papageorgiou1995">{{cite doi\|10.1063/1.868540}}</ref>
			}}

			==External links==
			{{Commons category\|Plateau-Rayleigh instability}}
			*[http://www.roentzsch.org/Rayleigh/index.html Plateau–Rayleigh Instability – a 3D lattice kinetic Monte Carlo simulation]
			*[http://gfs.sourceforge.net/examples/examples/plateau.html Savart–Plateau–Rayleigh instability of a water column – Adaptive numerical simulation]
			*[http://web.mit.edu/1.63/www/Lec-notes/Surfacetension/Lecture5.pdf An MIT lecture on falling fluid jets, including the Plateau -Rayleigh instability] Pdf form, quite mathematical.

			{{DEFAULTSORT:Plateau-Rayleigh Instability}}
			[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]
			[[Category:Fluid dynamic instability]]

en>Beamlinen5 at 16:25, 6 August 2012

2012-08-06T16:25:40Z

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