Reciprocal rule - Revision history

en>Josve05a: Reverted edits by 162.127.211.25 (talk) (HG)

2014-10-27T17:37:41Z

Reverted edits by 162.127.211.25 (talk) (HG)

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:37, 27 October 2014
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~'''Fructosamines''' are compounds that result from [[glycation]] reactions between a sugar (such as [[fructose]] or [[glucose]])~~ and a primary [[amine]], followed by isomerization via the [[Amadori rearrangement]]. Biologically, fructosamines are recognized by [[fructosamine-3-kinase]], which may trigger the degradation of [[advanced glycation end-products]] (though the true clinical significance of this pathway is unclear). Fructosamine can also refer to the specific compound 1-amino-1-deoxy-D-fructose (isoglucosamine), first synthesized by Nobel laureate [[Hermann Emil Fischer]] in 1886.		Hi there, I am Alyson Pomerleau and I think it sounds quite great when you say it. To climb is some thing I truly enjoy performing. Some time in the past she chose to reside in Alaska and her parents reside nearby. I am an invoicing officer and I'll be promoted soon.<br><br>Here is my webpage: [http://koreanyelp.com/index.php?document_srl=1798&mid=SchoolNews spirit messages]

	~~Most commonly, fructosamine refers to a laboratory test for [[Diabetes mellitus\|diabetes]] management that~~ it is rarely used in clinical practice (simple [[blood glucose monitoring]] or [[hemoglobin A1c]] testing are preferred). Many [[Unnecessary health care\|unnecessary]] and [[Direct-to-consumer advertising\|direct-to-consumer]] lab testing companies sell fructosamine tests, but they are of limited clinical value.

	~~==Use in medicine==~~
	~~In diabetes, maintaining a normal blood [[glucose]] is essential to preventing many medical complications, including heart attacks and blindness~~. Most commonly, blood sugars are measured by either [[blood glucose monitoring]] which measures the current blood glucose level, or by [[Glycated hemoglobin]] (HbA1c) which measures average glucose levels over approximately 3 months.

	Similar to the hemoglobin A1c testing (which measures the [[glycation]] of hemoglobin), fructosamine testing calculates the fraction of total [[Serum (blood)\|serum]] proteins that have undergone glycation (the ''glycated serum proteins''). Since albumin is ~~the most common protein in blood, fructosamine levels typically reflect albumin glycation~~. (Some fructosamine tests specifically quantify the glycation of albumin, or ''glycated serum albumin'' instead of all proteins.). Because albumin has a [[half-life]] of approximately 20 days, the plasma fructosamine concentration reflects relatively recent (1-2 week) changes in blood glucose.

	In patients with diseases that reduce red blood cell lifespan, such as [[hemolytic anaemia]] or [[Hemoglobinopathy\|hemoglobinopathies]] such as [[sickle-cell disease]], a hemoglobin-based A1c test can be misleadingly low. A1c results may also be falsely high or low in [[Hemoglobinopathy\|hemoglobinopathies]] because abnormal hemoglobin variants can interfere in the analysis. In these cases, fructosamine measurement can be used as a marker of [[blood sugar]] levels, as its measurements are based on albumin instead of hemoglobin. However, any condition that changes serum albumin (such as the [[nephrotic syndrome]]) will affect the fructosamine result.

	~~In practice, fructosamine is rarely measured clinically (even in individuals with hemoglobinopathies or other red cell disorders) due~~ to ~~a number of pragmatic concerns. First, diabetes care is rarely changed~~ in short (1-4 week) intervals, since diabetes medications can take months to reach a [[steady state]]. An exception to this is pregnancy, where medication needs can change more rapidly and fructosamine may help provide closer short-term monitoring. Second, fructosamine has higher variability than A1c tests. Third, the overwhelming majority of studies in diabetes care are based on A1c measurements, which can make fructosamine results difficult to interpret. Fourth, the A1c test is incredibly well standardized<ref>National Glycohemoglobin Standardization Program, http://www.ngsp.org</ref> and trusted due to its nearly universal use. A variety of more advanced forms of the A1c test (e.g. some types of [[HPLC]], [[immunoassay]] and [[capillary electrophoresis]]) can more accurately assay A1c levels during complex hemoglobinopathies and ~~other conditions.<ref>{{Cite pmid\|12881436}}</ref> However this does not overcome the effect on A1c results of reduced red cell lifespan~~.

	~~==Interpretation of results==~~
	There is no standard reference range available for this test. The reference values depends upon the factors of patient age, gender, sample population, and test method. Hence, each laboratory reports will include the patient's specific reference range for the test. An increase in fructosamine in lab testing results usually means an ~~increase in glucose in the blood.~~

	On average, each change of 3.3 mmol (60 mg/dl) in average blood sugar levels will give rise to changes of 2% HbA1c and 75 µmol fructosamine values.<ref>{{cite web \|author=Bartol T \|title=Comparison of Blood Glucose, HbA1c, and Fructosamine \|url=http://www.healthyinfo.com/clinical/endo/dm/hga1c.test.shtml \|date=2000-12-01 \|accessdate=2007-06-04}} - gives a comparison chart and ~~cites following source:~~
	* {{cite journal \|author=Nathan DM, Singer DE, Hurxthal K, Goodson JD \|title=The clinical information value of the glycosylated hemoglobin assay \|journal=N. Engl. J. Med. \|volume=310 \|issue=6 \|pages=341–6 \|year=1984 \|pmid=6690962 \|doi=10.1056/NEJM198402093100602}}</ref> However, this overemphasizes the upper-limit of many laboratories' ~~reference ranges of 285 μmol/L as equivalent to HbA1c 7~~.~~5% rather than 6.5%. A comparative study,~~<ref name="pmid12502674">{{cite journal \|author=Cohen RM, Holmes YR, Chenier TC, Joiner CH \|title=Discordance between HbA1c and fructosamine: evidence for a glycosylation gap and its relation to diabetic nephropathy \|journal=Diabetes Care \|volume=26 \|issue=1 \|pages=163–7 \|year=2003 \|pmid=12502674 \|doi= 10.2337/diacare.26.1.163\|url=http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/1/163}}</ref> ~~which has been used in official advice for [[Quality and Outcomes Framework]] guidance in the UK~~<~~ref~~>~~{{cite book \|title=Quality and outcomes framework Guidance 2006 \|chapter=Diabetes (DM) Indicator 20 The percentage of patients with diabetes in whom the last HbA1c~~ is ~~7.5 or less (or equivalent test/reference range depending on local laboratory) in the previous 15 months \|url=http~~://www.bma.org/ap.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/PDFQOF2006/$FILE/Quality+and+outcomes+framework+guidance+-+Feb+2006.pdf \|format=PDF \|publisher=BMA \|accessdate=2008-01-02 \|page=39}}</ref> and summaried by the United States' [[National Quality Measures Clearinghouse]]:<ref>{{cite web \|title=Diabetes mellitus: the percentage of patients with diabetes in whom the last HbA1c is 7.5 or less (or equivalent test/reference range depending on local laboratory) in the previous 15 months \|url=http://~~www~~.~~qualitymeasures.ahrq.gov~~/~~summary/summary~~.~~aspx~~?~~doc_id~~=~~7732 \|date=2007-12-31 \|publisher=National Quality Measures Clearinghouse \|accessdate=2008-01-02}}</ref> gives the following formula and resulting values:~~

	~~:<math>{\rm HbA1c} = {\rm 0.017} \times {\rm Fructosamine} + {\rm 1.61}</math>~~

	~~:Hence:~~
	~~:<math>{\rm Fructosamine} = ({\rm HbA1c} - 1.61) \times {\rm 58.82}</math>~~

	~~{\| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" align=center~~
	\|-
	~~! Fructosamine<br/>(µmol) \|\| HbA1c<br />% \|\| HbA1c IFCC<br/> (mmol/mol)~~
	\|-
	~~\| 200 \|\| 5 \|\| 31~~
	\|-
	~~\| 258 \|\| 6 \|\| 42~~
	\|-
	~~\| 288 \|\| 6.5 \|\| 48~~
	\|-
	~~\| 317 \|\| 7 \|\| 53~~
	\|-
	~~\| 346 \|\| 7.5 \|\| 58~~
	\|-
	~~\| 375 \|\| 8 \|\| 64~~
	\|-
	~~\| 435 \|\| 9 \|\| 75~~
	\|-
	~~\| 494 \|\| 10 \|\| 86~~
	\|-
	~~\| 552 \|\| 11 \|\| 97~~
	\|-
	~~\| 611 \|\| 12 \|\| 108~~
	\|}

	~~==See also==~~
	* [[Diabetes mellitus]]

	~~==Footnotes==~~
	~~{{reflist\|2}}~~

	=~~= External links==~~
	* Fructosamine at [http://labtestsonline.org/understanding/analytes/fructosamine/tab/test Lab Tests Online]
	* [http://www.acb.org.uk/docs/NHLM/Fructosamine-3.pdf Fructosamine: analyte monograph] - The Association for Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine

	~~{{Diabetes}}~~

	~~{{Blood tests}}~~

	~~[[Category:Diabetes]]~~
	~~[[Category:Diabetes-related tests]]~~
	~~[[Category:Hematology]]~~
	~~[[Category:Proteins]]~~
	~~[[Category:Blood tests]]~~
	~~[[Category:Hexosamines]~~]

en>Minna Sora no Shita: Reverted edits by 49.145.3.213 (talk) to last revision by Minna Sora no Shita (HG)

2013-07-14T06:37:40Z

Reverted edits by 49.145.3.213 (talk) to last revision by Minna Sora no Shita (HG)

← Older revision		Revision as of 08:37, 14 July 2013
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~Hello~~, ~~my name is Andrew~~ [~~https://www~~-~~ocl~~.~~gist~~.ac.~~kr/work/xe/?document_srl~~=~~605236 real psychics~~] and ~~my wife doesn~~'~~t like it at~~ all. ~~For~~ a ~~whilst I've been~~ in ~~Alaska but I~~ will ~~have~~ to ~~move~~ in a ~~year or two~~. ~~I am really fond~~ of ~~handwriting but I~~ can't make ~~it my occupation really~~. [http://m-~~card~~.co.kr/xe/~~mcard_2013_promote01~~/~~29877 best psychic readings~~] ~~Distributing manufacturing~~ is ~~where my main earnings arrives from~~ and it'~~s some thing I really enjoy~~.<br><br>~~Here is my web~~-~~site~~: ~~psychic readings online (~~[http://~~chungmuroresidence~~.~~com~~/xe/~~reservation_branch2~~/~~152663 chungmuroresidence~~.~~com~~])		'''Fructosamines''' are compounds that result from [[glycation]] reactions between a sugar (such as [[fructose]] or [[glucose]]) and a primary [[amine]], followed by isomerization via the [[Amadori rearrangement]]. Biologically, fructosamines are recognized by [[fructosamine-3-kinase]], which may trigger the degradation of [[advanced glycation end-products]] (though the true clinical significance of this pathway is unclear). Fructosamine can also refer to the specific compound 1-amino-1-deoxy-D-fructose (isoglucosamine), first synthesized by Nobel laureate [[Hermann Emil Fischer]] in 1886.

			Most commonly, fructosamine refers to a laboratory test for [[Diabetes mellitus\|diabetes]] management that it is rarely used in clinical practice (simple [[blood glucose monitoring]] or [[hemoglobin A1c]] testing are preferred). Many [[Unnecessary health care\|unnecessary]] and [[Direct-to-consumer advertising\|direct-to-consumer]] lab testing companies sell fructosamine tests, but they are of limited clinical value.

			==Use in medicine==
			In diabetes, maintaining a normal blood [[glucose]] is essential to preventing many medical complications, including heart attacks and blindness. Most commonly, blood sugars are measured by either [[blood glucose monitoring]] which measures the current blood glucose level, or by [[Glycated hemoglobin]] (HbA1c) which measures average glucose levels over approximately 3 months.

			Similar to the hemoglobin A1c testing (which measures the [[glycation]] of hemoglobin), fructosamine testing calculates the fraction of total [[Serum (blood)\|serum]] proteins that have undergone glycation (the ''glycated serum proteins''). Since albumin is the most common protein in blood, fructosamine levels typically reflect albumin glycation. (Some fructosamine tests specifically quantify the glycation of albumin, or ''glycated serum albumin'' instead of all proteins.). Because albumin has a [[half-life]] of approximately 20 days, the plasma fructosamine concentration reflects relatively recent (1-2 week) changes in blood glucose.

			In patients with diseases that reduce red blood cell lifespan, such as [[hemolytic anaemia]] or [[Hemoglobinopathy\|hemoglobinopathies]] such as [[sickle-cell disease]], a hemoglobin-based A1c test can be misleadingly low. A1c results may also be falsely high or low in [[Hemoglobinopathy\|hemoglobinopathies]] because abnormal hemoglobin variants can interfere in the analysis. In these cases, fructosamine measurement can be used as a marker of [[blood sugar]] levels, as its measurements are based on albumin instead of hemoglobin. However, any condition that changes serum albumin (such as the [[nephrotic syndrome]]) will affect the fructosamine result.

			In practice, fructosamine is rarely measured clinically (even in individuals with hemoglobinopathies or other red cell disorders) due to a number of pragmatic concerns. First, diabetes care is rarely changed in short (1-4 week) intervals, since diabetes medications can take months to reach a [[steady state]]. An exception to this is pregnancy, where medication needs can change more rapidly and fructosamine may help provide closer short-term monitoring. Second, fructosamine has higher variability than A1c tests. Third, the overwhelming majority of studies in diabetes care are based on A1c measurements, which can make fructosamine results difficult to interpret. Fourth, the A1c test is incredibly well standardized<ref>National Glycohemoglobin Standardization Program, http://www.ngsp.org</ref> and trusted due to its nearly universal use. A variety of more advanced forms of the A1c test (e.g. some types of [[HPLC]], [[immunoassay]] and [[capillary electrophoresis]]) can more accurately assay A1c levels during complex hemoglobinopathies and other conditions.<ref>{{Cite pmid\|12881436}}</ref> However this does not overcome the effect on A1c results of reduced red cell lifespan.

			==Interpretation of results==
			There is no standard reference range available for this test. The reference values depends upon the factors of patient age, gender, sample population, and test method. Hence, each laboratory reports will include the patient's specific reference range for the test. An increase in fructosamine in lab testing results usually means an increase in glucose in the blood.

			On average, each change of 3.3 mmol (60 mg/dl) in average blood sugar levels will give rise to changes of 2% HbA1c and 75 µmol fructosamine values.<ref>{{cite web \|author=Bartol T \|title=Comparison of Blood Glucose, HbA1c, and Fructosamine \|url=http://www.healthyinfo.com/clinical/endo/dm/hga1c.test.shtml \|date=2000-12-01 \|accessdate=2007-06-04}} - gives a comparison chart and cites following source:
			* {{cite journal \|author=Nathan DM, Singer DE, Hurxthal K, Goodson JD \|title=The clinical information value of the glycosylated hemoglobin assay \|journal=N. Engl. J. Med. \|volume=310 \|issue=6 \|pages=341–6 \|year=1984 \|pmid=6690962 \|doi=10.1056/NEJM198402093100602}}</ref> However, this overemphasizes the upper-limit of many laboratories' reference ranges of 285 μmol/L as equivalent to HbA1c 7.5% rather than 6.5%. A comparative study,<ref name="pmid12502674">{{cite journal \|author=Cohen RM, Holmes YR, Chenier TC, Joiner CH \|title=Discordance between HbA1c and fructosamine: evidence for a glycosylation gap and its relation to diabetic nephropathy \|journal=Diabetes Care \|volume=26 \|issue=1 \|pages=163–7 \|year=2003 \|pmid=12502674 \|doi= 10.2337/diacare.26.1.163\|url=http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/1/163}}</ref> which has been used in official advice for [[Quality and Outcomes Framework]] guidance in the UK<ref>{{cite book \|title=Quality and outcomes framework Guidance 2006 \|chapter=Diabetes (DM) Indicator 20 The percentage of patients with diabetes in whom the last HbA1c is 7.5 or less (or equivalent test/reference range depending on local laboratory) in the previous 15 months \|url=http://www.bma.org/ap.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/PDFQOF2006/$FILE/Quality+and+outcomes+framework+guidance+-+Feb+2006.pdf \|format=PDF \|publisher=BMA \|accessdate=2008-01-02 \|page=39}}</ref> and summaried by the United States' [[National Quality Measures Clearinghouse]]:<ref>{{cite web \|title=Diabetes mellitus: the percentage of patients with diabetes in whom the last HbA1c is 7.5 or less (or equivalent test/reference range depending on local laboratory) in the previous 15 months \|url=http://www.qualitymeasures.ahrq.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=7732 \|date=2007-12-31 \|publisher=National Quality Measures Clearinghouse \|accessdate=2008-01-02}}</ref> gives the following formula and resulting values:

			:<math>{\rm HbA1c} = {\rm 0.017} \times {\rm Fructosamine} + {\rm 1.61}</math>

			:Hence:
			:<math>{\rm Fructosamine} = ({\rm HbA1c} - 1.61) \times {\rm 58.82}</math>

			{\| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" align=center
			\|-
			! Fructosamine<br/>(µmol) \|\| HbA1c<br />% \|\| HbA1c IFCC<br/> (mmol/mol)
			\|-
			\| 200 \|\| 5 \|\| 31
			\|-
			\| 258 \|\| 6 \|\| 42
			\|-
			\| 288 \|\| 6.5 \|\| 48
			\|-
			\| 317 \|\| 7 \|\| 53
			\|-
			\| 346 \|\| 7.5 \|\| 58
			\|-
			\| 375 \|\| 8 \|\| 64
			\|-
			\| 435 \|\| 9 \|\| 75
			\|-
			\| 494 \|\| 10 \|\| 86
			\|-
			\| 552 \|\| 11 \|\| 97
			\|-
			\| 611 \|\| 12 \|\| 108
			\|}

			==See also==
			* [[Diabetes mellitus]]

			==Footnotes==
			{{reflist\|2}}

			== External links==
			* Fructosamine at [http://labtestsonline.org/understanding/analytes/fructosamine/tab/test Lab Tests Online]
			* [http://www.acb.org.uk/docs/NHLM/Fructosamine-3.pdf Fructosamine: analyte monograph] - The Association for Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine

			{{Diabetes}}

			{{Blood tests}}

			[[Category:Diabetes]]
			[[Category:Diabetes-related tests]]
			[[Category:Hematology]]
			[[Category:Proteins]]
			[[Category:Blood tests]]
			[[Category:Hexosamines]]

en>RussBot: Robot: Editing intentional link to disambiguation page in hatnote per WP:INTDABLINK (explanation)

2012-06-23T19:29:59Z

Robot: Editing intentional link to disambiguation page in hatnote per WP:INTDABLINK (explanation)

New page

Hello, my name is Andrew [https://www-ocl.gist.ac.kr/work/xe/?document_srl=605236 real psychics] and my wife doesn't like it at all. For a whilst I've been in Alaska but I will have to move in a year or two. I am really fond of handwriting but I can't make it my occupation really. [http://m-card.co.kr/xe/mcard_2013_promote01/29877 best psychic readings] Distributing manufacturing is where my main earnings arrives from and it's some thing I really enjoy.<br><br>Here is my web-site: psychic readings online ([http://chungmuroresidence.com/xe/reservation_branch2/152663 chungmuroresidence.com])