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	~~I am 25 years old~~ and ~~my name~~ is ~~Samantha Vance~~. ~~I life~~ in ~~Godenstorf~~ (~~Germany~~).<br><br>~~my blog~~ :: [~~http~~://~~www~~.~~pcs~~-systems.co.uk/~~Images~~/~~celinebag~~.~~aspx Celine handbags~~]		In [[computer algebra]], a '''triangular decomposition''' of a polynomial system <math>S</math> is a set of simpler polynomial systems <math>S_1,\ldots, S_e</math> such that a point is a solution of <math>S</math> if and only if it is a solution of one of the systems <math>S_1,\ldots, S_e</math>.

			When the purpose is to describe the solution set of <math>S</math> in the [[algebraic closure]] of its coefficient field, those simpler systems are [[regular chain]]s. If the coefficient of <math>S</math> are real numbers, then the real solutions of <math>S</math> can be obtained by a triangular decomposition into [[regular semi-algebraic system]]s. In both cases, each of these simpler systems has a triangular shape and remarkable properties, which justifies the terminology.

			== Formal definitions ==

			Let <math>{{\mathbf{k}}}</math> be a field and <math>x_1 < \cdots < x_n</math> be ordered variables. We denote by <math>R = {{\mathbf{k}}}[x_1, \ldots, x_n]</math> the corresponding polynomial ring. Let <math>F</math> be a subset of <math>R</math>. There are two notions of a '''triangular decomposition''' of <math>F</math> (regarded as a system of polynomial equations) over the [[algebraic closure]] of <math>{{\mathbf{k}}}</math>. The first one is to decompose lazily, by representing only the [[generic point]]s of the algebraic set <math>V(F)</math> in the so-called sense of Kalkbrener.
			: <math>\sqrt{(F)}=\cap_{i=1}^{e}\sqrt{\mathrm{sat}(T_i)}</math>.
			The second is to describe explicitly all the points of <math>V(F)</math> in the so-called sense of in [[Daniel Lazard\|Lazard]] and [[Wu Wenjun\|Wen-Tsun Wu]].
			: <math>V(F)=\cup_{i=1}^{e}W(T_i)</math>.
			In both cases <math>T_1,\ldots, T_e</math> are finitely many [[regular chain]]s of <math>R</math> and <math>\sqrt{\mathrm{sat}(T_i)}</math> denotes the radical of the '''saturated ideal''' of <math>T_i</math> while <math>W(T_i)</math> denotes the '''quasi-component''' of <math>T_i</math>. Please refer to [[regular chain]] for definitions of these notions.

			Assume from now on that <math>{{\mathbf{k}}}</math> is a [[real closed field]]. Consider <math>S</math> a semi-algebraic system with polynomials in <math>R</math>. There exist<ref>Changbo Chen, James H. Davenport, John P. May, Marc Moreno-Maza, Bican Xia, Rong Xiao. Triangular decomposition of semi-algebraic systems. Proceedings of 2010 International Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Computation (ISSAC 2010), ACM Press, pp. 187--194, 2010.</ref> finitely many [[regular semi-algebraic system]]s <math>S_1,\ldots, S_e</math> such that we have
			:<math> {Z}_{{{\mathbf{k}}}}(S) \ = \ {Z}_{{{\mathbf{k}}}}(S_1) \ \cup \ \cdots \ {\cup \ Z}_{{{\mathbf{k}}}}(S_e) </math> where <math>{Z}_{{{\mathbf{k}}}}(S)</math> denotes the points of <math>{{\mathbf{k}}}^n</math> which solve <math>S</math>. The regular semi-algebraic systems <math>S_1,\ldots, S_e</math> form a '''triangular decomposition''' of the semi-algebraic system <math>S</math>.

			== History ==
			The '''Characteristic Set Method''' is the first factorization-free algorithm which was proposed for decomposing an algebraic variety into equidimensional components. Moreover, the Author, [[Wu Wenjun\|Wen-Tsun Wu]], realized an implementation of this method and reported experimental data in his 1987 pioneer article titled "A zero structure theorem for polynomial equations solving".<ref>Wu, W. T. (1987). A zero structure theorem for polynomial equations solving. MM Research Preprints, 1, 2–12</ref> To put this work into context, let us recall what was the common idea of an algebraic set decomposition at the time this article was written.

			Let <math>{{\mathbf{K}}}</math> be an [[algebraically closed field]] and <math>{{\mathbf{k}}}</math> be a subfield of <math>{{\mathbf{K}}}</math>. A subset <math>V \subset {{\mathbf{K}}}^n</math> is an (affine) [[algebraic variety]] over <math>{{\mathbf{k}}}</math> if there exists a polynomial set <math>F \subset {{\mathbf{k}}}[x_1, \ldots, x_n]</math> such that the zero set <math>V(F) \subset {{\mathbf{K}}}^n</math> of <math>F</math> equals <math>V</math>.

			Recall that <math>V</math> is said '''irreducible''' if for all algebraic varieties <math>V_1, V_2 \subset {{\mathbf{K}}}^n</math> the relation <math>V = V_1 \, \cup \, V_2</math> implies either <math>V = V_1</math> or <math>V = V_2</math>. A first algebraic variety decomposition result is the famous [[Lasker–Noether theorem]] which implies the following.

			:'''Theorem''' (Lasker - Noether)
			: For each algebraic variety <math>V \subset {{\mathbf{K}}}^n</math> there exist finitely many irreducible algebraic varieties <math>V_1, \ldots, V_e \subset {{\mathbf{K}}}^n</math> such that we have
			:<math> V \ = \ V_1 \ \cup \ \cdots \ \cup \ V_e. </math>
			:Moreover, if <math>V_i \not\subseteq V_j</math> holds for <math>1 \leq i < j \leq e</math> then the set <math>\{ V_1, \ldots, V_e \}</math> is unique and forms the '''irreducible decomposition''' of <math>V</math>.

			The varieties <math>V_1, \ldots, V_e</math> in the above Theorem are called the '''irreducible components''' of <math>V</math> and can be regarded as a natural output for a decomposition algorithm, or, in other words, for an algorithm solving a system of equations in <math>{{\mathbf{k}}}[x_1, \ldots, x_n]</math>.

			In order to lead to a computer program, this algorithm specification should prescribe how irreducible components are represented. Such an encoding is introduced by [[Joseph Ritt]]<ref>Ritt, J. (1966). Differential Algebra. New York, Dover Publications</ref> through the following result.

			:'''Theorem''' (Ritt).
			:If <math>V \subset {{\mathbf{K}}}^n</math> is a non-empty and irreducible variety then one can compute a reduced triangular set <math>C</math> contained in the ideal <math>\langle F \rangle</math> generated by <math>F</math> in <math> {{\mathbf{k}}}[x_1, \ldots, x_n]</math> and such that all polynomial <math>g \in \langle F \rangle</math> reduces to zero by pseudo-division w.r.t <math>C</math>.

			We call the set <math>C</math> in Ritt's Theorem a '''Ritt characteristic set''' of the ideal <math>\langle F \rangle</math>. Please refer to [[regular chain]] for the notion of a triangular set.

			[[Joseph Ritt]] described a method for solving polynomial systems based on polynomial factorization over field extensions and computation of characteristic sets of prime ideals.

			Deriving a practical implementation of this method, however, was and remains a difficult problem. In the 80's, when the [[Wu's method of characteristic set\|Characteristic set]] Method was introduced, polynomial factorization was an active research area and certain fundamental questions on this subject were solved recently<ref>A. M. Steel Conquering inseparability: Primary decomposition and multivariate factorization over algebraic function fields of positive characteristic</ref>

			Nowadays, decomposing an algebraic variety into irreducible components is not essential to process most application problems, since weaker notions of decompositions, less costly to compute, are sufficient.

			The '''Characteristic Set Method''' relies on the following variant of Ritt's Theorem.

			:'''Theorem''' (Wen-Tsun Wu)
			:For any finite polynomial set <math>F \subset {{\mathbf{k}}}[x_1,\cdots,x_n]</math>, one can compute a reduced triangular set <math>C \subset \langle F \rangle</math> such that all polynomial <math>g \in F</math> reduces to zero by pseudo-division w.r.t <math>C</math>.

			Different concepts and algorithms extended the work of [[Wu Wenjun\|Wen-Tsun Wu]]. In the early 90's, the notion of a [[regular chain]], introduced independently by Michael Kalkbrener in 1991 in his PhD Thesis and, by Lu Yang and Jingzhong Zhang<ref>Yang, L., Zhang, J. (1994). Searching dependency between algebraic equations: an algorithm applied to automated reasoning. Artificial Intelligence in Mathematics, pp. 14715, Oxford University Press.</ref> led to important algorithmic discoveries.

			In Kalkbrener's vision,<ref>M. Kalkbrener: A Generalized Euclidean Algorithm for Computing Triangular Representations of Algebraic Varieties. J. Symb. Comput. 15(2): 143–167 (1993)</ref> regular chains are used to represent the generic zeros of the irreducible components of an algebraic variety. In the original work of Yang and Zhang, they are used to decide whether a hypersurface intersects a quasi-variety (given by a regular chain). [[Regular chain]]s have, in fact, several interesting properties and are the key notion in many algorithms for decomposing systems of algebraic or differential equations.

			Regular chains have been investigated in many papers.<ref>S.C. Chou and X.S. Gao. On the dimension of an arbitrary ascending chain. Chinese Bull. of Sci., 38:799--804, 1991.</ref><ref>Michael Kalkbrener. Algorithmic properties of polynomial rings. J. Symb. Comput.}, 26(5):525--581, 1998.</ref><ref>P. Aubry, D. Lazard, M. Moreno Maza. On the theories of triangular sets. Journal of Symbolic Computation, 28(1–2):105–124, 1999.</ref>

			The abundant literature on the subject can be explained by the many equivalent definitions of a regular chain. Actually, the original formulation of Kalkbrener is quite different from that of Yang and Zhang. A bridge between these two notions, the point of view of Kalkbrener and that of Yang and Zhang, appears in Dongming Wang's paper.<ref>D. Wang. Computing Triangular Systems and Regular Systems. Journal of Symbolic Computation 30(2) (2000) 221–236</ref>

			There are various algorithms available for obtaining triangular decomposition of <math>V(F)</math> both in the sense of Kalkbrener and in the sense of Lazard and [[Wu Wenjun\|Wen-Tsun Wu]]. The '''Lextriangular Algorithm''' by [[Daniel Lazard]]<ref>D. Lazard, ''Solving zero-dimensional algebraic systems''. Journal of Symbolic Computation '''13''', 1992</ref> and the '''Triade Algorithm''' by Marc Moreno Maza<ref>M. Moreno Maza: On triangular decomposition of algebraic varieties. MEGA 2000 (2000).</ref> together with the '''Characteristic Set Method''' are available in various computer algebra systems, including [[Axiom (computer algebra system)\|Axiom]].

			== See also ==
			*[[Wu's method of characteristic set]]
			*[[Regular chain]]
			*[[RegularChains]], a software to compute regular chains
			*[[Regular semi-algebraic system]]

			== References ==

			{{Reflist}}

			[[Category:Equations]]
			[[Category:Algebra]]
			[[Category:Polynomials]]
			[[Category:Algebraic geometry]]
			[[Category:Computer algebra]]
			[[Category:Computer algebra systems]]

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