Coulometry - Revision history

en>Vanisaac: clean up and regexp typo fixing, typo(s) fixed: build up → buildup using AWB

2014-06-04T08:11:49Z

clean up and regexp typo fixing, typo(s) fixed: build up → buildup using AWB

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:11, 4 June 2014
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	~~In [[organic chemistry]], '~~'~~'free-radical halogenation''' is a type of [[halogenation]]. This [[chemical reaction]] is typical of [[alkane]]~~s and [[alkyl]]-substituted [[aromatic]]s under application of [[UV light]]. The reaction is used for the industrial synthesis of [[chloroform]] (CHCl<sub>3</sub>), [[dichloromethane]] (CH<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub>), and [[hexachlorobutadiene]]. It proceeds by a [[free-radical]] chain mechanism.		Oscar is how he's known as and he totally enjoys this name. My family lives in Minnesota and my family members loves it. He is truly fond of performing ceramics but he is struggling to find time for it. I am a meter reader but I strategy on changing it.<br><br>Feel free to surf to my web-site ... [http://miranoh.com/board_Trab58/417493 http://miranoh.com]

	~~== General mechanism==~~

	~~The chain mechanism is as follows, using the chlorination of [[methane]]~~ as ~~a typical example:~~
	:'''1.''' [[Initiation (chemistry)\|Initiation]]: Splitting or [[homolysis (chemistry)\|homolysis]] of a chlorine molecule to form two chlorine atoms, initiated by [[ultraviolet radiation]] or sunlight. A chlorine atom has an unpaired electron and ~~acts as a [[free radical]].~~
	~~::[[Image:MethaneChlorinationMechanismInitiation.svg\|Methane chlorination: initiation]]~~
	~~:'''2.''' [[chain propagation]] (two steps): a hydrogen atom is pulled off from methane leaving a 1˚ methyl radical. The methyl radical then pulls a Cl· from Cl<sub>2</sub>.~~
	~~[[Image:MethaneChlorinationPropagationStep.svg\|Methane chlorination: propagation]]~~
	:This results in the desired product plus another chlorine radical. This radical will then go on to take part in another propagation reaction causing a [[chain reaction]]. If there is sufficient chlorine, other products such as CH<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub> may be formed.
	~~:'''3.''' [[chain termination]]: recombination of two free radicals:~~
	~~:[[Image:MethaneChlorinationTermination.svg\|Methane chlorination: termination]]~~
	~~:The last possibility in the termination step will result in an impurity in the final mixture; notably~~ this ~~results in an organic molecule with a longer carbon chain than the reactants.~~

	~~The net reaction is:~~
	~~:[[Image:MethaneRadicalChlorination.svg\|Methane chlorination overall reaction]] or <math>CH_4 + Cl_2 \xrightarrow{uv\ light} CH_3Cl + HCl</math>~~

	In the case of methane or ethane, all the hydrogen atoms are equivalent and thus have an equal chance of being replaced. This leads to what is known as a ''statistical product distribution''. For [[propane]] and higher alkanes, the hydrogen atoms which form part of CH<sub>2</sub> (or CH) groups are preferentially replaced.

	The reactivity of the different halogens varies considerably. The relative rates are: [[fluorine]] (108) > [[chlorine]] (1) > [[bromine]] (7 × 10<sup>−11</sup>) > [[iodine]] (2 × 10<sup>−22</sup>). Hence the reaction of [[alkane]]s with fluorine is difficult to control, that with chlorine is moderate to fast, that with bromine is slow and requires high levels of UV irradiation while the reaction with iodine is practically non-existent and [[Thermodynamics\|thermodynamically]] unfavorable.

	~~A common method~~ in ~~organic synthesis employing [[N-Bromosuccinimide\|''N''-bromosuccinimide]], which can undergo [[homolysis (chemistry)\|homolysis]] to yield a bromine radical~~ and ~~is a free-radical halogenation variant, is the [[Wohl–Ziegler reaction]].~~

	~~== Control of halogenation ==~~

	* Halogenation often does not stop at monosubstititution. Depending on reaction conditions the chlorination of methane yields [[dichloromethane]], [[chloroform]] and [[carbon tetrachloride]].
	*In most [[hydrocarbon]]s more than one possible product exists depending on which hydrogen is replaced. [[Butane]] (CH<sub>3</sub>−CH<sub>2</sub>−CH<sub>2</sub>−CH<sub>3</sub>), for example, can be chlorinated at the "1" position to give 1-chlorobutane (CH<sub>3</sub>−CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>Cl) or at the "2" position to give 2-chlorobutane (CH<sub>3</sub>−CH<sub>2</sub>−CHCl−CH<sub>3</sub>). The product distribution depends on relative reaction rates: in this case the "2" position of ~~butane reacts faster and 2-chlorobutane~~ is ~~the major product.~~
	* Chlorination is generally less selective than bromination. Fluorination is not only even less selective than chlorination, but also highly [[exothermic]] and care must be taken to prevent an explosion or a runaway reaction. This relationship is often used as a demonstration of the [[reactivity–selectivity principle]] and can be explained with the aid of the [[Hammond postulate]]. A bromine radical is not very reactive and the [[transition state]] for proton abstraction has much radical character and is reached late. The reactive chlorine radical develops a transition state resembling the reactant with little radical character. When the alkyl radical is fully formed in the transition state it ~~can benefit fully from any [[resonance stabilization]] present thereby maximizing selectivity.~~
	*We can also look at the [[bond dissociation energy\|bond dissociation energies]] (BDE's) to understand the selectivity of bromination. ~~The BDE of~~ a bond is the energy required to break it by homolytic cleavage, and these values can be used to determine if a reaction or step in a reaction is [[exothermic]] or [[endothermic]]. In a chain reaction step of a Br radical reacting with a hydrogen on a [[secondary carbon]] to cleave the H−C bond requires 397 kJ/mol and an H-Br is formed. We can look at the BDE of H−Br (= 366 kJ/mol) and subtract this value from 397 kJ/mol to get +31 kJ/mol. This positive value tells us that this step in the reaction requires energy (endothermic) and the reactants are more stable than the products. Comparing this with the same situation of a Cl radical we see that this step is exothermic (397 − 431 kJ/mol = −20 kJ/mol). From these values we can conclude that in bromination it is more important that the most stable radical (tertiary) be formed during this step and thus it is more selective than chlorination. This is because less energy is required to form the H-Br and tertiary radical (380 − 366 kJ/mol = +14 kJ/mol). This value is 17 kJ/mol less than the secondary radical formation. Iodine does not even participate in free-radical halogenation because the entire reaction is endothermic.
	*It is possible to predict the product distribution of different monochloro derivatives resulting from the chlorination of an alkane with non-equivalent hydrogens.<~~ref~~>~~Carey, FA. Organic Chemistry, Sixth Edition. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. 2006.~~<~~/ref~~><ref>Peters, W. Chemistry 3421 Lecture Notes. University of Colorado, Denver. Radical Halogenation, Fall 2006.</ref> From experimentation it has been determined that the relative rates of chlorination to ~~primary, secondary, and tertiary positions are 1, 3~~.8, and 5 respectively (this ratio is used in the example following this paragraph). This corresponds with alkyl [[Radical (chemistry)\|radical]] stability: tertiary radical species are more stable than secondary radical species, and secondary radical species are more stable than primary radical species—thus any single chlorination will favor substitution at the most substituted carbon. ~~Because of this trend, the percentages of each product formed from the parent radical can be estimated with relatively high accuracy~~. ~~For example, 2-methyl butane ((CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CHCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>) exhibits the following results:~~

	~~:-For clarity, the unique hydrogens will be labeled as follows:~~
	~~: a=(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> (primary), b=CH (tertiary), c=CH<sub>2</sub> (secondary), d=CH<sub>3</sub> (also primary)~~
	~~:-Applying the aforementioned substitution ratios in the formula: ([number of hydrogens][ratio factor])/~~[~~(primary hydrogens1) + (secondary hydrogens3.8) + (tertiary hydrogens5)]~~
	: ~~a:6 × 1 = 6 a= 6~~/~~21.6 = 28%~~
	~~: b:1 × 5 = 5 b= 5~~/~~21.6 = 23%~~
	~~: c:2 × 3~~.~~8 = 7.6 c= 7.6~~/~~21.6 = 35%~~
	~~: d:3 × 1 = 3 d= 3~~/~~21.6 = 14%~~
	: ~~Denominator total for this species = 6 + 5 + 7.6 + 3 = 21.6~~

	Because all six "a" hydrogens, both "c" hydrogens, and the three "d" hydrogens are chemically equivalent with the others in their three classifications (i.e., any "a" hydrogen is equivalent with any other "a" hydrogen), these rates accurately reflect where a single chlorination may take place for 2-methyl butane. The single tertiary hydrogen "b" is nearly as susceptible as the six, primary "a" hydrogens, and almost doubly susceptible as any of the three, also-primary "d" hydrogens, illustrating the radical stability differences between tertiary and primary hydrogens (the secondary "c" hydrogens also follow the radical stability order as previously mentioned).

	~~Free-radical iodination is usually not possible because iodine is too unreactive to form a radical. For the other halogens, free-radical halogenation generally proceeds in the following order:~~
	*Carbons with one or more [[aryl]] substituents (benzylic positions) react faster than:
	*Carbons with three [[alkyl]] substituents (tertiary positions), which react faster than:
	*Carbons with two alkyl substituents (secondary positions), which react faster than:
	*Carbons with one or zero substituents (primary positions)

	~~[[Oxygen]] is a halogenation [[Reaction inhibitor\|inhibitor]].~~

	An example of radical bromination of [[toluene]] is given below:<ref>''Free radical bromination by the H2O2–HBr system on water'' Ajda Podgorsˇek Stojan Stavber, Marko Zupana, and Jernej Iskraa [[Tetrahedron Letters]] 47 ('''2006''') 7245–7247 {{DOI\|10.1016/~~j.tetlet.2006.07.109}}<~~/~~ref>~~

	~~:[[Image:TolueneBromination2006~~.~~png\|400px\|bromination of toluene with hydrobromic acid and hydrogen peroxide in water]]~~

	This reaction takes place [[on water reaction\|on water]] instead of an organic solvent and the bromine is obtained by [[oxidation]] of [[hydrobromic acid]] with [[hydrogen peroxide]]. An [[incandescent light bulb]] is sufficient for bromine radical generation.

	~~==References==~~

	~~{{Reflist}}~~

	~~[[Category:Free radical reactions]~~]

14.139.217.115: /* Electronic coulometer */

2014-01-22T04:30:18Z

Electronic coulometer

← Older revision		Revision as of 06:30, 22 January 2014
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	~~Greetings! I am Myrtle Shroyer~~. ~~North Dakota~~ is ~~her beginning place but she~~ will have to ~~transfer one day~~ or ~~an additional~~. ~~His wife doesn~~'~~t like it~~ the ~~way he~~ does but ~~what he truly likes doing~~ is ~~to do aerobics~~ and he's ~~been performing~~ it ~~for quite~~ a ~~whilst~~. ~~My working day job~~ is a ~~librarian~~.<br><br>~~Take a look~~ at ~~my web page~~ ... ~~[http~~://~~dev2~~.~~garagiste~~.~~com~~/~~how~~-~~you~~-~~can~~-~~cure~~-~~unpleasant-candida std testing at home~~]		In [[organic chemistry]], '''free-radical halogenation''' is a type of [[halogenation]]. This [[chemical reaction]] is typical of [[alkane]]s and [[alkyl]]-substituted [[aromatic]]s under application of [[UV light]]. The reaction is used for the industrial synthesis of [[chloroform]] (CHCl<sub>3</sub>), [[dichloromethane]] (CH<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub>), and [[hexachlorobutadiene]]. It proceeds by a [[free-radical]] chain mechanism.

			== General mechanism==

			The chain mechanism is as follows, using the chlorination of [[methane]] as a typical example:
			:'''1.''' [[Initiation (chemistry)\|Initiation]]: Splitting or [[homolysis (chemistry)\|homolysis]] of a chlorine molecule to form two chlorine atoms, initiated by [[ultraviolet radiation]] or sunlight. A chlorine atom has an unpaired electron and acts as a [[free radical]].
			::[[Image:MethaneChlorinationMechanismInitiation.svg\|Methane chlorination: initiation]]
			:'''2.''' [[chain propagation]] (two steps): a hydrogen atom is pulled off from methane leaving a 1˚ methyl radical. The methyl radical then pulls a Cl· from Cl<sub>2</sub>.
			[[Image:MethaneChlorinationPropagationStep.svg\|Methane chlorination: propagation]]
			:This results in the desired product plus another chlorine radical. This radical will then go on to take part in another propagation reaction causing a [[chain reaction]]. If there is sufficient chlorine, other products such as CH<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub> may be formed.
			:'''3.''' [[chain termination]]: recombination of two free radicals:
			:[[Image:MethaneChlorinationTermination.svg\|Methane chlorination: termination]]
			:The last possibility in the termination step will result in an impurity in the final mixture; notably this results in an organic molecule with a longer carbon chain than the reactants.

			The net reaction is:
			:[[Image:MethaneRadicalChlorination.svg\|Methane chlorination overall reaction]] or <math>CH_4 + Cl_2 \xrightarrow{uv\ light} CH_3Cl + HCl</math>

			In the case of methane or ethane, all the hydrogen atoms are equivalent and thus have an equal chance of being replaced. This leads to what is known as a ''statistical product distribution''. For [[propane]] and higher alkanes, the hydrogen atoms which form part of CH<sub>2</sub> (or CH) groups are preferentially replaced.

			The reactivity of the different halogens varies considerably. The relative rates are: [[fluorine]] (108) > [[chlorine]] (1) > [[bromine]] (7 × 10<sup>−11</sup>) > [[iodine]] (2 × 10<sup>−22</sup>). Hence the reaction of [[alkane]]s with fluorine is difficult to control, that with chlorine is moderate to fast, that with bromine is slow and requires high levels of UV irradiation while the reaction with iodine is practically non-existent and [[Thermodynamics\|thermodynamically]] unfavorable.

			A common method in organic synthesis employing [[N-Bromosuccinimide\|''N''-bromosuccinimide]], which can undergo [[homolysis (chemistry)\|homolysis]] to yield a bromine radical and is a free-radical halogenation variant, is the [[Wohl–Ziegler reaction]].

			== Control of halogenation ==

			* Halogenation often does not stop at monosubstititution. Depending on reaction conditions the chlorination of methane yields [[dichloromethane]], [[chloroform]] and [[carbon tetrachloride]].
			*In most [[hydrocarbon]]s more than one possible product exists depending on which hydrogen is replaced. [[Butane]] (CH<sub>3</sub>−CH<sub>2</sub>−CH<sub>2</sub>−CH<sub>3</sub>), for example, can be chlorinated at the "1" position to give 1-chlorobutane (CH<sub>3</sub>−CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>Cl) or at the "2" position to give 2-chlorobutane (CH<sub>3</sub>−CH<sub>2</sub>−CHCl−CH<sub>3</sub>). The product distribution depends on relative reaction rates: in this case the "2" position of butane reacts faster and 2-chlorobutane is the major product.
			* Chlorination is generally less selective than bromination. Fluorination is not only even less selective than chlorination, but also highly [[exothermic]] and care must be taken to prevent an explosion or a runaway reaction. This relationship is often used as a demonstration of the [[reactivity–selectivity principle]] and can be explained with the aid of the [[Hammond postulate]]. A bromine radical is not very reactive and the [[transition state]] for proton abstraction has much radical character and is reached late. The reactive chlorine radical develops a transition state resembling the reactant with little radical character. When the alkyl radical is fully formed in the transition state it can benefit fully from any [[resonance stabilization]] present thereby maximizing selectivity.
			*We can also look at the [[bond dissociation energy\|bond dissociation energies]] (BDE's) to understand the selectivity of bromination. The BDE of a bond is the energy required to break it by homolytic cleavage, and these values can be used to determine if a reaction or step in a reaction is [[exothermic]] or [[endothermic]]. In a chain reaction step of a Br radical reacting with a hydrogen on a [[secondary carbon]] to cleave the H−C bond requires 397 kJ/mol and an H-Br is formed. We can look at the BDE of H−Br (= 366 kJ/mol) and subtract this value from 397 kJ/mol to get +31 kJ/mol. This positive value tells us that this step in the reaction requires energy (endothermic) and the reactants are more stable than the products. Comparing this with the same situation of a Cl radical we see that this step is exothermic (397 − 431 kJ/mol = −20 kJ/mol). From these values we can conclude that in bromination it is more important that the most stable radical (tertiary) be formed during this step and thus it is more selective than chlorination. This is because less energy is required to form the H-Br and tertiary radical (380 − 366 kJ/mol = +14 kJ/mol). This value is 17 kJ/mol less than the secondary radical formation. Iodine does not even participate in free-radical halogenation because the entire reaction is endothermic.
			*It is possible to predict the product distribution of different monochloro derivatives resulting from the chlorination of an alkane with non-equivalent hydrogens.<ref>Carey, FA. Organic Chemistry, Sixth Edition. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. 2006.</ref><ref>Peters, W. Chemistry 3421 Lecture Notes. University of Colorado, Denver. Radical Halogenation, Fall 2006.</ref> From experimentation it has been determined that the relative rates of chlorination to primary, secondary, and tertiary positions are 1, 3.8, and 5 respectively (this ratio is used in the example following this paragraph). This corresponds with alkyl [[Radical (chemistry)\|radical]] stability: tertiary radical species are more stable than secondary radical species, and secondary radical species are more stable than primary radical species—thus any single chlorination will favor substitution at the most substituted carbon. Because of this trend, the percentages of each product formed from the parent radical can be estimated with relatively high accuracy. For example, 2-methyl butane ((CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CHCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>) exhibits the following results:

			:-For clarity, the unique hydrogens will be labeled as follows:
			: a=(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> (primary), b=CH (tertiary), c=CH<sub>2</sub> (secondary), d=CH<sub>3</sub> (also primary)
			:-Applying the aforementioned substitution ratios in the formula: ([number of hydrogens][ratio factor])/[(primary hydrogens1) + (secondary hydrogens3.8) + (tertiary hydrogens5)]
			: a:6 × 1 = 6 a= 6/21.6 = 28%
			: b:1 × 5 = 5 b= 5/21.6 = 23%
			: c:2 × 3.8 = 7.6 c= 7.6/21.6 = 35%
			: d:3 × 1 = 3 d= 3/21.6 = 14%
			: Denominator total for this species = 6 + 5 + 7.6 + 3 = 21.6

			Because all six "a" hydrogens, both "c" hydrogens, and the three "d" hydrogens are chemically equivalent with the others in their three classifications (i.e., any "a" hydrogen is equivalent with any other "a" hydrogen), these rates accurately reflect where a single chlorination may take place for 2-methyl butane. The single tertiary hydrogen "b" is nearly as susceptible as the six, primary "a" hydrogens, and almost doubly susceptible as any of the three, also-primary "d" hydrogens, illustrating the radical stability differences between tertiary and primary hydrogens (the secondary "c" hydrogens also follow the radical stability order as previously mentioned).

			Free-radical iodination is usually not possible because iodine is too unreactive to form a radical. For the other halogens, free-radical halogenation generally proceeds in the following order:
			*Carbons with one or more [[aryl]] substituents (benzylic positions) react faster than:
			*Carbons with three [[alkyl]] substituents (tertiary positions), which react faster than:
			*Carbons with two alkyl substituents (secondary positions), which react faster than:
			*Carbons with one or zero substituents (primary positions)

			[[Oxygen]] is a halogenation [[Reaction inhibitor\|inhibitor]].

			An example of radical bromination of [[toluene]] is given below:<ref>''Free radical bromination by the H2O2–HBr system on water'' Ajda Podgorsˇek Stojan Stavber, Marko Zupana, and Jernej Iskraa [[Tetrahedron Letters]] 47 ('''2006''') 7245–7247 {{DOI\|10.1016/j.tetlet.2006.07.109}}</ref>

			:[[Image:TolueneBromination2006.png\|400px\|bromination of toluene with hydrobromic acid and hydrogen peroxide in water]]

			This reaction takes place [[on water reaction\|on water]] instead of an organic solvent and the bromine is obtained by [[oxidation]] of [[hydrobromic acid]] with [[hydrogen peroxide]]. An [[incandescent light bulb]] is sufficient for bromine radical generation.

			==References==

			{{Reflist}}

			[[Category:Free radical reactions]]

en>Pinethicket: Reverted edits by 14.98.149.77 (talk) to last version by ClueBot NG

2012-05-19T09:59:13Z

Reverted edits by 14.98.149.77 (talk) to last version by ClueBot NG

New page

Greetings! I am Myrtle Shroyer. North Dakota is her beginning place but she will have to transfer one day or an additional. His wife doesn't like it the way he does but what he truly likes doing is to do aerobics and he's been performing it for quite a whilst. My working day job is a librarian.<br><br>Take a look at my web page ... [http://dev2.garagiste.com/how-you-can-cure-unpleasant-candida std testing at home]