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2013-09-21T20:36:50Z

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The [[effects of global warming]] include effects on human health. This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations. The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health.

== Impact on infectious diseases ==
Warming oceans and a changing climate are resulting in extreme weather patterns which have brought about an increase of [[infectious diseases]]—both new and re-emerging.<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=29–61|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=The Mosquito's Bite}}</ref><ref name="Emerging Infections" /> These extreme weather patterns are creating extended [[rainy seasons]] in some areas,<ref name="Sobering Predictions">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=62–79|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=Sobering Predictions}}</ref> and extended periods of [[drought]] in others,<ref name="IPCC">{{cite book|title=Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.|pages=747–845|author=Meehl, G.A., T.F. Stocker, W.D. Collins, P. Friedlingstein, A.T. Gaye, J.M. Gregory, A. Kitoh, R. Knutti, J.M. Murphy, A. Noda, S.C.B. Raper, I.G. Watterson, A.J. Weaver and Z.-C. Zhao|editor=Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller|chapter=Global Climate Projections}}</ref> as well as introducing new climates to different regions.<ref name=IPCC /> These extended seasons are creating climates that are able to sustain [[vector (epidemiology)|vectors]] for longer periods of time, allowing them to multiply rapidly, and also creating climates that are allowing the introduction and survival of new vectors.<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" />

=== Impact of extreme weather ===
“The rise of extreme weather is itself a symptom of an unstable climate. Moreover, the variance around the long-term warming trend has begun to influence [[biological systems]], Indeed, two main effects of climate change—warming and greater weather variability-mean that millions of people worldwide face a higher risk of infectious disease”.<ref name="Sobering Predictions" /> [[El Nino]] is an extreme weather pattern that is often responsible for increased precipitation, resulting in increased [[flooding]], creating a more promising breeding ground for a plethora of vectors that both carry and cause infectious diseases.<ref name="Storms and Sickness">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=161–178|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=Storms and Sickness}}</ref>

Another result of the warming oceans are stronger [[hurricanes]], which will wreck more havoc on land, and in the oceans,<ref name="Storms and Sickness" /> and create more opportunities for vectors to breed and infectious diseases to flourish.<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /><ref name="Sobering Predictions" /> [[Extreme weather]] also means stronger winds. These winds can carry vectors tens of thousands of kilometers, resulting in an introduction of new infectious disease to regions that have never seen them before, making the humans in these regions even more susceptible.<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" />

=== Impact of warmer and wetter climates ===

Mosquito-borne diseases are probably the greatest threat to humans as they include [[malaria]], [[elephantiasis]], [[Rift Valley fever]], [[yellow fever]], and [[dengue fever]].<ref name="Mosquitoes-Borne Disease">{{cite journal|last=Reiter|first=Paul|title=Climate Change and Mosquito-Borne Disease|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|year=2001|volume=109|issue=1|pages=141–161|url=http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2001/suppl-1/141-161reiter/abstract.html}}</ref><ref name=elephantiasis>{{cite journal|last=Hunter, P.R.|title=Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease|journal=Journal of Applied Microbiology|year=2003|volume=94|pages=37S-46S}}</ref><ref name="Climate change & health" /> Studies are showing higher prevalence of these diseases in areas that have experienced extreme flooding and drought.<ref name="Mosquitoes-Borne Disease" /><ref name=elephantiasis /> Flooding creates more standing water for mosquitoes to breed; as well, shown that these vectors are able to feed more and grow faster in warmer climates.<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> As the climate warms over the oceans and coastal regions, warmer temperatures are also creeping up to higher elevations allowing mosquitoes to survive in areas they had never been able to before.<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> As the climate continues to warm there is a risk that malaria will make a return to the developed world.<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" />

[[Ticks]] are also thriving in the warmer temperatures allowing them to feed and grow at a faster rate.<ref name=Ticks>{{cite journal|last=Süss, J., Klaus, C., Gerstengarbe, F.W., & Werner, P.C.|title=What Makes Ticks Tick? Climate Change, Ticks, and|journal=Journal of Travel Medicine|year=2008|volume=15|issue=1|pages=39–45|doi=10.1111/j.1708-8305.2007.00176.x|pmid=18217868}}</ref> The [[black legged tick]], a carrier of [[Lyme disease]], when not feeding, spends its time burrowed in soil absorbing moisture.<ref name="Sobering Predictions" /><ref name="Climate and Lyme Disease">{{cite journal|last=Subak|first=Susan|title=Effects of Climate on Variability in Lyme Disease Incidence in the Northeastern|journal=American Journal of Epidemiology|year=2003|volume=157|issue=6|pages=531–538|doi=10.1093/aje/kwg014}}</ref> Ticks die when the climate either becomes too cold or when the climate becomes too dry, causing the ticks to dry out.<ref name="Sobering Predictions" /><ref name="Climate and Lyme Disease" /> The natural environmental controls that used to keep the tick populations in check are disappearing, and warmer and wetter climates are allowing the ticks to breed and grow at an alarming rate, resulting in an increase in Lyme disease, both in existing areas and in areas where it has not been seen before.<ref name="Sobering Predictions" /><ref name=Ticks />

Other diseases on the rise due to extreme weather include: [[hantavirus]],<ref name=Hantavirus>{{cite journal|last=Klempa, B.|title=Hantaviruses and Climate Change|journal=European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases|year=2009|volume=15|issue=6|pages=518–523|doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02848.x}}</ref> [[schistosomiasis]],<ref name=elephantiasis /><ref name="Climate change & health">{{cite journal|last=McMichael, A.J., Woodruff, R.E., & Hales, S.|title=Climate change and human health: present and future risks|journal=The Lancet|date=11 March 2006|volume=367|issue=9513|pages=859–869|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)}}</ref> [[onchocerciasis]] (river blindness),<ref name="Climate change & health" /> and [[tuberculosis]].<ref name="Emerging Infections">{{cite journal|last=Epstein|first=Paul R.|title=Climate change and emerging infectious diseases|journal=Microbes and Infection|year=2001|volume=3|pages=747–754}}</ref>

=== Impact of warmer oceans ===

The warming oceans are becoming a breeding ground for toxic algae blooms (also known as [[red tides]]) and [[cholera]].<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /><ref name="Climate change & health" /><ref name=Mozambique /> As the nitrogen and phosphorus levels in the oceans increase, the cholera bacteria that lives within [[zooplankton]] emerge from their dormant state.<ref name=Mozambique /> The changing winds and changing ocean currents push the zooplankton toward the coastline, carrying the cholera bacteria, which then contaminate drinking water, causing [[cholera outbreaks]].<ref name=Mozambique>{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=6–28|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=Mozambique}}</ref> As flooding increases there is also in increase in cholera epidemics as the flood waters that are carrying the bacteria are infiltrating the drinking water supply.<ref name="Global Health">{{cite journal|last=St. Louis, M.E., & Hess, J.J.|title=Climate Change Impacts on and Implications for Global Health|journal=American Journal of Preventative Medicine|year=2008|volume=35|issue=5|pages=527–538|doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2008.08.023}}</ref> El Nino has also been linked with cholera outbreaks because this weather patter warms the shoreline waters, causing the cholera bacteria to multiply rapidly.<ref name=Mozambique /><ref name="Global Health" />

Toxic algae blooms (red tides) are the result of a changing and warming climate.<ref name=Blooms>{{cite journal|last=Glick|first=Patricia|title=The Toll From Coal: Power Plants, Emissions, Wildlife, and Human Health|journal=Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society|date=December 2001|volume=21|issue=6|pages=482–500}}</ref> El Nino events precipitation resulting in flooding, which causes the coastal seawater to be infiltrated with runoff from the flooding land resulting in increased nitrogen and phosphorus which feed the algae and spur their growth.<ref name="Sea Change">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=122–137|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=Sea Change}}</ref> These toxic blooms in turn infect [[shellfish]], which threatens the health of the millions of people who depend on shellfish for protein.<ref name="Sea Change" /> Paralytic shellfish poisoning is the most common result of red tides, as was seen in the 1987 outbreak in Prince Edward Island.<ref name="Sea Change" /> [[Ciguatera]] fish poisoning is also a result of red tides.<ref name="Marine Ecosystems">{{cite journal|last=Epstein P.R., Ford T.E., & Colwell R.R.|title=Marine Ecosystems|journal=The Lancet|date=13 November 1993|volume=342|issue=8881}}</ref> Humans that ingest these infected reef dwelling fish become ill.<ref name="Marine Ecosystems" /> Further, red tides are so powerful that they also cause [[respiratory illness]] simply by breathing the air near them.<ref name="Sea Change" />

===Malaria===

[[Malaria]] is a mosquito-borne parasitic disease that infects humans and other animals caused by microorganisms in the [[Plasmodium]] family. It begins with a bite from an infected female mosquito, which introduces the parasite through its saliva and into the infected host’s circulatory system. It then travels through the bloodstream into the liver where it can mature and reproduce.<ref name=Lancet>{{Cite journal|authors=B.M. Greenwood, K. Bojang, C.J. Whitty, G.A. Targett|title=Malaria|journal=Lancet|year=2005|volume=365|pages=1487–1498|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66420-3|pmid=15850634}}</ref> The disease causes symptoms that typically include fever, headache, shaking chills, anemia, and in severe cases can progress to coma or death.

Climate is an influential driving force of vector-borne diseases such as malaria. Malaria is especially susceptible to the effects of climate change because mosquitoes lack the mechanisms to regulate their internal temperature. This implies that there is a limited range of climatic conditions within which the pathogen (malaria) and vector (a mosquito) can survive, reproduce and infect hosts.<ref name=infectious>{{Cite journal|author=S. Mia, R.A. Begum, A.C. Er, R.Z. Abidin, J.J. Pereira|title= Malaria and Climate Change: Discussion on Economic Impacts|journal=American Journal of Environmental Sciences|year=2010|volume=7|issue=1|pages=73–82|doi=10.3844/ajessp.2011.73.82}}</ref> Vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, have distinctive characteristics that determine [[pathogenicity]]. These include: the survival and reproduction rate of the vector, the level of vector activity (i.e. the biting or feeding rate), and the development and reproduction rate of the pathogen within the vector or host.<ref name=infectious>{{Cite journal|author=S. Mia, R.A. Begum, A.C. Er, R.Z. Abidin, J.J. Pereira|title= Malaria and Climate Change: Discussion on Economic Impacts|journal=[[American Journal of Environmental Sciences]]|year=2010|volume=7|issue=1|pages=73–82|doi=http://tru.summon.serialssolutions.com/search?s.q=malaria+and+climate+change}}</ref> Changes in climate factors substantially affect reproduction, development, distribution and seasonal transmissions of malaria.

Mosquitoes have a small window for preferential conditions for breeding and maturation. The ultimate breeding and maturing temperature for mosquitoes range from sixteen to eighteen degrees Celsius.<ref name= commonwealth>http://www.thecommonwealth.org/files/190385/FileName/Githeko_2009.pdf</ref> If the temperature is decreased by two degrees, most of the insects will succumb to death. This is why malaria is unsustainable in places with cool winters. If a climate with an average of approximately 16 degrees Celsius experiences an increase of about two degrees, the mature bugs and the larvae flourish.<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> Female mosquitoes will need more food (human/animal blood) to sustain life and to stimulate production of eggs. This increases the chance of spread of malaria due to more human contact and a higher number of the blood sucking insects surviving and living longer. Mosquitoes are also highly sensitive to changes in precipitation and humidity. Increased precipitation can increase mosquito population indirectly by expanding larval habitat and food supply.<ref name=infectious>{{Cite journal|authors=H. Pates, C. Curtis|title=Mosoquito behaviour and vector control|journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]]|year=2005|volume=50|issue=1|pages=57–70|doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130439|pmid=15355233}}</ref> These prime temperatures are creating large breeding grounds for the insects and places for the larvae to mature. Increased temperature is causing snow to melt and stagnant pools of water to become more common.<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> Bugs that are already carrying the disease are more likely to multiply and infect other mosquitoes causing a dangerous spread of the deadly disease.

Climate change has a direct impact on people’s health in places where Malaria is not prevalent. In communities of higher altitudes in [[Africa]] and [[South America]], people are at higher risk for developing malaria in recent years because of an increase temperature. A fluctuation of two or three degrees is creating exceptional breeding grounds for mosquitoes, for larvae to grow and mature mosquitoes carrying the virus to infect people that have never been exposed before.<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> This is a severe problem because people in these communities have never been exposed to this disease causing an increased risk for complications from malaria such as cerebral malaria (a type of malaria that causes mental disability, paralysis and has a high mortality rate) and death by the disease.<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> Residents of these communities are being hit hard by malaria because they are unfamiliar with it; they do not know the signs and symptoms and have little to no immunity.

The population at risk of malaria in the absence of climate change is projected to double between 1990 and 2080 to 8820 million, however; unmitigated climate change would, by the 2080s, further increase the population at risk of malaria by another 257 to 323 million.<ref name=Goklany>{{Cite journal|authors=I.M. Goklany, D.A. King|title=Climate change and malaria|journal=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]|year=2004|volume=306|issue=5693|pages=55–57|doi=10.1126/science.306.5693.55}}</ref> Therefore, reducing the effects of climate change in the present would reduce the total by about 3.5%, saving tens of thousands of lives worldwide.

If there is a slight discrepancy in the normal temperature, the perfect conditions for the insects to multiply are created. People that have never been infected before are unknowingly at risk for this deadly disease and do not have the immunity to combat it.<ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> An increase in temperature has the potential to cause a widespread [[epidemic]] of the disease that has the capacity to wipe out entire populations of people. It is important to track the prevalence, species and number of insects carrying the disease as well as the amount of humans infected in countries and places that have never seen malaria before. It is simple for the slightest of fluctuation in temperature to cause a catastrophic epidemic that has the possibility to end the lives of many innocent and unsuspecting people.<ref name= commonwealth/>

===Dengue Fever===

====Background====
[[Dengue fever]] is an infectious disease caused by the [[dengue virus]] known to be in the tropical regions.<ref name="Dengue and Sever Dengue">{{cite web|title=Dengue and Severe Dengue|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs117/en/|publisher=World Health Organization|author=WHO|year=2012}}</ref> It is transmitted by mosquito [[Aedes]], or A aegypti.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Simmon|first=Cameron|coauthors=Farrar, Chau, Wills|title=Dengue|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|date=12 April 2012|issue=15|pages=1423–1432|doi=10.1056/NEJMra1110265|url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1110265|accessdate=24 November 2012|pmid=22494122|volume=366}}</ref>

The cases of Dengue fever increased dramatically since the 1970s and continues to become more prevalent.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dengue/dengue haemorrhagic fever|url=http://www.who.int/csr/disease/dengue/en/|publisher=World Health Organization|accessdate=24 November 2012|author=WHO|year=2012}}</ref> This disease is believed to be due to a combination of urbanization, population growth, increased international travel, and global warming.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gubler|first=DJ|title=Human and Medical Virology: Dengue Viruses|year=2010|publisher=Elsevier|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-12-375147-8|pages=372–382|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=nsh48WKIbhQC&pg=PA372&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false|editor=Mahy, Brian & Van Regenmortel, Marc}}</ref> The same trends also led to the spread of different serotypes of the disease to new areas, and to the emergence of [[dengue hemorrhagic fever]]. There are four different types of virues in dengue fever. If someone is infected with one type of dengue virus, he or she will have permanent immunity to that type of dengue virus, but will have short term immunity to the other type of dengue fever.<ref name="Dengue and Sever Dengue" /> Some of the symptoms of dengue fever are fever, headache,muscle and joint pains and skin rash.<ref name=denguefever>{{cite web|title=Dengue Fever|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002350/|publisher=PubMed Health|accessdate=24 November 2012|year=2011}}</ref> There is no vaccine for Dengue fever right now and there is no true treatment to get rid of it, but there are treatments to assist with some of the symptoms of dengue, such as the use of oral or intravenous fluids for rehydration.<ref name=denguefever/>

====Climate Change Impacts====
[[Dengue fever]] used to be considered a [[tropical disease]], but [[climate change]] is causing dengue fever to spread. Dengue fever is transmitted by certain types of [[mosquitos]], which have been spreading further and further north. This is because some of the climate changes that are occurring are increased heat, [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] and [[humidity]] which create prime breeding grounds for mosquitos.<ref>{{cite book|last=Epstein|first=Paul|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkley and Los Angeles, California|isbn=978-0-520-26909-5|pages=69–71}}</ref> The hotter and wetter a climate is the faster the mosquitos can mature and the faster the disease can develop. Another influence is the changing [[El Nino]] effects that are affecting the climate to change in different areas of the world, causing dengue fever to be able to spread.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hopp|first=Marianne|coauthors=Foley, Jonathan|title=Global-Scale Relationships Between Climate and the Dengue Fever Vector, Aedes Aegypti|journal=Climatic Change|year=2001|volume=48|pages=441–463|url=http://www.sage.wisc.edu/pubs/articles/F-L/Hopp/Hopp2001ClimChan.pdf|accessdate=November 17, 2012}}</ref>

====What can be done?====
There are many things that can be done, both on a governmental level and on an individual basis.
1.) Have a better system of detecting when dengue outbreaks may happen. This can be done by monitoring environments, such as temperatures, rainfall and humidity that would be attractive for these types of mosquitos to flourish.
2.) Educating the public: Letting the public know when a dengue outbreak is occurring and what they can do to protect themselves. For example, people should create a living environment that is not attractive to mosquitos (no sitting water), dress in appropriate clothing (light colours, long sleeves)and wear insect repellant.

===HIV/AIDS===

[[File:Labour Losses HIV AIDS.jpg|thumbnail|right|Labour Losses Due To HIV AIDS]]
HIV AIDS and Climate Change are both long wave issues that cause fear and uncertainty in the population. One of the main reasons why [[climate change]] appears to have such an impact on [[HIV/AIDS]] seems to be related to food shortage. “In the fight against hunger we could now be facing a perfect storm of challenges, including climate change and increasingly severe droughts and floods, soaring food prices and the tightest supplies in recent history, declining levels of food aid, and HIV/AIDS, which also aggravates food insecurity” says Sheeran.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sheeran|first=Josette|title=The challenge of hunger|journal=Lancet|date=17 January 2008|volume=371|issue=9608|pages=180–181|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61870-4|accessdate=24 November 2012}}</ref> The lack of food security, due to climate change, in South Africa has been affected by HIV/AIDS. In [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] over 70% of the population are farmers and human capital has decreased due to HIV/AIDS.<ref name=Bruce-Lockhart>{{cite journal|last=Bruce-Lockhart|first=Kate|title=Alleviating the double burden|journal=Women & Environments International Magazine|volume=Fall 2011/Winter 2012|issue=88/89|pages=14–15|accessdate=24 November 2012}}</ref> “This reduction in the household labour capabilities severely decreases agricultural output. The source of nourishment and income for the bulk of Sub-Saharan Africa’s population, agricultural output, is further hurt by a loss in the transfer of intergenerational knowledge, as the productive adult population with experience in agricultural labour is the most severely affected by AIDS”.<ref name="Bruce-Lockhart" /> This has been made worse as 90% of the people infected with HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa are adults. This not only greatly reduces human capital, but it leaves many children to tend to themselves. Malnutrition, brought about by food security in Sub-Saharan Africa, exacerbates the effects of HIV/AIDS.<ref name="Bruce-Lockhart" /> A study done in [[Ethiopia]] showed that chronic malnutrition was a predictor of first line antiretroviral therapy failure.<ref>{{cite web|title=Predictors of treatment failure and time to detection and switching in HIV-infected Ethiopian children receiving first line anti-retroviral therapy|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3507905/|publisher=BMC Infectious Diseases|accessdate=30 November 2012|author=Tigist Bacha|coauthors=Birkneh Tilahun, Alemayehu Worku|pages=1–197|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-197|date=24 August 2012}}</ref> This has the potential to create more HIV deaths each year, as immune capabilities are further weakened by [[Malnutrition]]. Another important factor about food insecurity is that it could increase the spread of HIV AIDS from the use of [[Transactional sex]]. Women who are desperate and suffer malnutrition are more likely to sell their bodies in order to support themselves. Also food insecurity and poverty may prevent people from seeking a diagnosis or prevent them from having the ability to afford treatment.

Secondly the spread of [[Malaria]] due to climate change will also be degrading to the burden of disease of HIV/AIDS.<ref name=UNAIDS>{{cite web|last=UN AIDS|first=UNEP|title=Climate Change and AIDS: A Joint Working Paper|url=http://data.unaids.org/pub/BaseDocument/2008/20081223_unep_unaids_joint_working_paper_on_cca_en.pdf|publisher=www.unaids.org|accessdate=Noverember 28 2012}}</ref> As people become infected by HIV/AIDS and are then exposed to Malaria, it will create an even more substantial loss of life because AIDS victims will be less likely to be able to fight the Malaria infection.
Climate change may also increase the spread of HIV/AIDS. As climate change disasters sweep the globe, more people will become displaced, and be forced to live in close quarters to one another. There is evidence to suggest that this could “aggravate gender inequalities"<ref name=UNAIDS/> that have the potential to raise the possibility of transmission of the disease. Migrants often have poor living conditions, are separated from their spouses and families, perform demanding and dangerous jobs and have limited access to health care.<ref name="labor migration and HIV risk">{{cite journal|last=Weine|first=SM|coauthors=AB Kashuba|title=Labor migration and HIV risk: a systematic review of the literature.|journal=Spring Science + Business Media|date=August 2012|volume=16|issue=6|pages=1605–21|doi=10.1007/s10461-012-0183-4|pmid=22481273|accessdate=1 December 2012}}</ref> This can all lead to an increased risk of contracting HIV/AIDS.

Lastly climate Change will reduce the funds available to mitigate HIV/AIDS. As more money is spent on repairing infrastructure due the increasing nature of extreme weather, less money will be available for programs to prevent HIV/AIDS and to look after those that are already infected.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ziervogel|first=Gina|coauthors=Scott Drimie|title=The Intergration of Support for HIV and Aids and Livelihood Secuirty: A District Level Instiutional Analysis in Southern Africa|journal=Population and Environment|date=1 May 2008|volume=29|issue=3/5|pages=204–218|doi=10.1007/s11111-008-0066-9|url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11111-008-0066-9?LI=true|accessdate=November 11, 2012}}</ref> This is especially true in underdeveloped countries where they are least able to cope. The governments in these countries are less able to provide for their populations, and will even more under strain from the climate change related costs. This raises the possibility of bankrupt countries that may leed to the [[Failed state]] phenomenon. The twin effects of HIV/AIDS and Climate Change therefore will be degrading to human health.

===Mental health===
While the physical health impacts of [[climate change]] are well known, the impact on mental health has only begun to be recognized in the last decade.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chand & Murthy|first=Paul & Paula|title=Climate change and mental health|journal=WHO|year=2008|volume=12|issue=1|url=http://209.61.208.233/LinkFiles/Regional_Health_Forum_Volume_12_No_1_RHF-vol12.pdf#page=51}}</ref> According to 2011 in ''[[American Psychologist]]'' Clayton & Doherty, concluded that global climate change is bound to have substantial negative impacts on mental health and well-being, effects which will primarily be felt by vulnerable [[populations]] and those with pre-existing serious [[mental illness]].<ref name=clayton>{{cite journal|last=Clayton & Doherty|first=Susan & Thomas|title=The psychological impacts of global climate change|journal=American Psychological Association|year=2011|volume=66|issue=4|pages=265–276|doi=10.1037/a0023141}}</ref>

They identified three classes of psychological impacts from global climate change:<ref name="Doherty">{{Cite journal|author=Doherty, Thomas J.; Clayton, Susan|year=2011|title=The psychological impacts of global climate change|journal=PsycNET|volume=66|issue=4|pages=265–276|doi= 10.1037/a0023141|url=http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/amp/66/4/265/}}</ref>
*Direct - "Acute or traumatic effects of extreme weather events and a changed environment"
*Indirect - "Threats to emotional well-being based on observation of impacts and concern or uncertainty about future risks"
*Psychosocial - "Chronic social and community effects of heat, drought, migrations, and climate-related conﬂicts, and postdisaster adjustment"

In order to appreciate the impacts on psychological well-being an understanding and recognition of the multiple meanings and cultural narratives associated with climate change and the interrelatedness of climate change and other global phenomena, like increased population, is required.<ref name=clayton/> The psychological impacts of climate change can be divided into three classes; direct, indirect, and psychosocial. Direct impacts refer to the immediate or localized consequences of an environmental change or [[disaster]], such as stress or injury. Indirect impacts are more gradual and cumulative and are experienced through the media and social interaction and communication. Psychosocial impacts are large-scale community and social effects, like conflicts related to [[Human migration|migration]] and subsequent shortages or adjustment after a disaster. Climate change does not impact everyone equally; those of lower [[economic]] and social status are at greater risk and experience more devastating impacts.<ref name=clayton/>

Direct impacts on [[mental health]], such as landscape changes, impaired place attachment, and [[psychological trauma]] are all immediate and localized problems resulting from extreme weather events and environmental changes.<ref name=clayton/> Research has shown that extreme weather events lead to a variety of mental health disorders from the impacts of loss, social disruption, and displacement.<ref name=portier>{{cite web|last=Portier & Tart|first=Carol & Kim|title=Mental health and stress related disorders|url=http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/assets/docs_a_e/climatereport2010.pdf|publisher=Environmental Health Perspectives and the National Institute of Environment Health Services|accessdate=November 2012}}</ref> Further reinforced by Clayton & Dohert1y (2011), “[a]cute and direct impacts include mental health injuries associated with more frequent and powerful weather events, natural disasters, and adjustment to degraded or disrupted physical environments”.<ref name=clayton/>{{rp|265}}. For example, events such as [[wildfires]] and [[hurricanes]] can lead to [[anxiety]] and emotional stress, further exacerbated in already vulnerable populations with current mental health issues <ref name=portier/>

On the other hand, indirect impacts pertaining to mental health are more gradual and cumulative and are experienced through the media and social interaction and communication.<ref name=clayton/> For example, extreme weather events can pose indirect impacts through the migration of large communities due to stressors upon already limited resources.<ref name=portier/> Some examples of common mental health conditions associated indirectly from these extreme weather events include: acute traumatic stress, [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], [[depression (mood)|depression]], [[complicated grief]], [[anxiety disorders]], sleep difficulties, [[sexual dysfunction]], and drug or alcohol abuse.<ref name=portier/> Similarly, the devastating effects of the extreme weather event of Hurricane Katrina lead to a variety of mental health problems due to the destruction of resources.<ref name=epstein>{{cite book|last=Epstein & Ferber|first=Paul & David|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Los Angelas}}</ref> Many people impacted by [[Hurricane Katrina]] were left [[homeless]], disenfranchised, stressed, and suffering physical illness.<ref name=epstein/> This strain on the public health system decreased access and availability of medical resources.<ref name=epstein/> Some climate change adaptation measures may prevent the need for displacement; however, some communities may be unable to implement adaptation strategies, and this will create added stress, further exacerbating already existing mental health issues.<ref name=portier/> Extreme weather events and population displacement lead to limited availability of [[medications]], one of the primary resources required to meet psychological and physical needs of those affected by such events.<ref name=portier/>

Furthermore, one of the more devastating indirect impacts of climate change on mental health is the increased risk in [[suicide]]. Studies show that suicide rates increase after extreme weather events.<ref name=epstein/> This has been demonstrated in [[Australia]], where [[drought]] has resulted in [[crop]] failures and despair to the Australian countryside.<ref name=epstein/> Farmers were left with nothing, forced to sell everything, reduce their stock, and borrow large sums to plant crops at the start of the season.<ref name=epstein/> The indirect consequences have caused a growing increase in [[depression (mood)|depression]], [[domestic violence]], and most alarmingly, suicide.<ref name=epstein/> More than one hundred farmers in the countryside had committed suicide by 2007.<ref name=epstein/>

Psychosocial impacts are indirect impacts on social and community relationships. While some impacts result directly from an event caused by climate change, most are indirect results of changes in how people use and occupy territory.<ref name=clayton/> Extreme weather events can lead to the [[Human migration|migration]] of large communities due to stressors upon already limited [[resources]].<ref name=portier/> Climate change affects the suitability of territory for [[agriculture]], [[aquaculture]], and habitation, which means that the experiences of people in particular [[geographical]] locations, as well as the geographical distribution of populations, will be altered.<ref name=clayton/>

Consequences of psychosocial impacts caused by climate change include: increase in [[violence]], intergroup conflict, displacement and relocation and [[socioeconomic]] disparities. Based on research, there is a causal relationship between heat and violence and that any increase in average global temperature is likely to be accompanied by an increase in violent aggression.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Charles|title=Heat and Violence|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|year=2001|volume=10|pages=33–38|doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00109}}</ref> Diminished resources leads to conflict between two groups over remaining [[natural resources]] or the migration of one group to another group’s territory leading to conflict over rights and ownership of space.<ref name=clayton/> Furthermore, this can lead to civil unrest when [[governments]] fail to adequately protect against natural disasters or respond to their effects, causing people to lose confidence and trust in their government leading to backlash.<ref>{{cite web|last=Abott|first=Charles|title=http://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/sites/default/files/uncertainfuture.pdf|url=http://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/sites/default/files/uncertainfuture.pdf|publisher=Oxford Research Group|accessdate=November 2012}}</ref> Forced relocations and displacement, result in disruptions of geographic and social connections which can lead to [[grief]], anxiety, and a sense of loss.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Finan, Nelson, & West|first=Tim, Drew, & Charles|title=Introduction to "In focus: Global change and adaptation in local places."|journal=American Anthropologist|year=2009|volume=111|pages=271–274|doi=10.1111/j.1548-1433.2009.01131.x}}</ref> Another consequence of psychosocial impacts is an increase in the disparity between those countries and people with adequate economic resources and those with fewer or in need of. Those [[nations]] and people with fewer resources will feel the impacts more strongly, as they have less ability to afford the technologies that would mitigate the financial and medical effects of climate change.<ref name=clayton/> Within nations, these individuals of lower socioeconomic status are more likely to become ethnic [[minorities]], increasing ethnic tensions and inter group [[hostility]]. An example of such tension and hostility occurred in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina where [[African Americans]] interpreted the government’s response to the disaster as indicating [[racism]].<ref name=clayton/>

==Climate Change and permafrost==
[[Permafrost]] is an important part of our environment and plays an important role in maintaining the stability of many ecosystems around the world. Below are a few brief descriptions of how [[climate change]] has contributed to the melting of permafrost and the associated impacts on different aspects of [[ecosystems]].
[[Image:Croix de Fer- View to South-West .JPG|left|thumb|This alpine valley is entirely above the [[tree line]]]]
[[File:Freshet in Pangnirtung, Nunavut -f.jpg|thumb|Freshet in Pangnirtung, Nunavut -f]]

===Fresh water supplies===
Permafrost plays and integral role in the regulation of fresh water supplies in the arctic and high alpine regions.<ref name=fisheries>{{cite book|last=Wrona|first=Frederick|title=Freshwater Ecosystems and Fisheries|year=2004|pages=353–452|url=http://www.acia.uaf.edu/PDFs/ACIA_Science_Chapters_Final/ACIA_Ch08_Final.pdf|coauthors=Terry D. Prowse, James D. Reist,Richard Beamish, John J. Gibson, John Hobbie, Erik Jeppesen, Jackie King, Guenter Koeck, Atte Korhola, Lucie Lévesque,|chapter=8}}</ref> Three general ground water systems found in permafrost regions include: Supra-permafrost, intra-permafrost and sub-permafrost.<ref name=fisheries /> Supra-permafrost system involves the water that is present above the frozen ground layer.<ref name=fisheries /> Intra-permafrost water system involves the water present within channels or holes that run through the frozen ground layer.<ref name=fisheries /> Supra-permafrost water systems exist below the frozen layer of earth.<ref name=fisheries /> Together, these systems regulate and support aquifer water supply as well as above ground fresh water sources such as lakes and streams.<ref name=fisheries />
When permafrost melts many freshwater lakes drain into the newly exposed soil below.<ref name=fisheries /> The surrounding ecosystems are affected as arctic lakes provide important habitat for migratory [[waterfowl]], [[ungulates]] such as moose and many aquatic species.<ref name=EPA>{{cite web|title=Alaska Impacts & Adaptation|url=http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/impacts-adaptation/alaska.html|publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency|accessdate=November 15|author=EPA}}</ref>
Fresh water evaporation also occurs as permafrost melts.<ref name=fisheries /> When the frozen ground disappears, associated surface air temperatures increase causing increased evaporation of fresh water supplies. Increased ground surface temperature also increases the rate of spring glacier melt.<ref name=fisheries /> This associated increase in [[freshet]] causes water to run over soil and into [[muskeg]] areas where the water stagnates and becomes acidic.<ref name=fisheries /> Once the acidified water enters into aquatic systems, it impacts the associated ecosystem.<ref name=fisheries />

===Plants===
There is a strong interdependence between permafrost and vegetation in permafrost regions.<ref name=Zhao-ping>{{cite journal|last=Zhao-ping|first=Yang|coauthors=Ou Yang Hua, Xu Xing-liang, Song Ming-hua, Zhou Cai-ping|title=Effects of permafrost degradation on ecosystems|journal=Acta Ecologica Sinica|year=2009|volume=30|issue=1|pages=33–39|doi=10.1016/j.chnaes.2009.12.006|accessdate=November 2012}}</ref> The melting of permafrost has a significant effect on soils, such as the moisture content and the availability of nutrients. Permafrost functions to serve [[terrestrial ecosystems]]; when permafrost thaws it decreases the amount of species that can grow in the low temperatures and high moisture soils.<ref name=Zhao-ping /> The effects that thawing permafrost has on vegetation greatly depends on the depth of the regions active layer.<ref name=Zhao-ping /> In some regions the thawing of permafrost leads to increased soil drainage and in others it leads to increased soil moisture; both causing changes to the dominant species in an area.<ref name=Zhao-ping /> In areas where the thawing permafrost causes increased soil drainage, wet plant species like [[Kobresia]] tibetica and Kobresia humilis decrease and drought plants such as [[Poa annua]] and [[Agropyron cristatum]] begin to take over.<ref name=Zhao-ping /> Unfortunately the decreased soil moisture leads to the disappearance of Alpine meadows and creates Alpine deserts.<ref name=Zhao-ping /> As [[Ice]]-rich permafrost regions begin to thaw the terrestrial ecosystems turn to aquatic or wetland ecosystems.<ref name=Zhao-ping /> Due to this process “wet sedge meadows, bogs, [[thermokarst]] ponds and lakes are replacing forests”.<ref name=Zhao-ping /> In Alaska the permafrost degradation has caused a decrease in [[birch]] forests by 25%.<ref name=Zhao-ping /> Permafrost degradation in the lowlands of Alaska has caused [[tussock (grass)]]-tundra communities to turn into [[shrub]]-tundra communities.<ref name=Zhao-ping /> Shrubs and woody plants are extending their northern ecological range and encroaching on lichen-dominated ecosystems.<ref name=EPA /> [[File:Lichen-covered tree, Tresco.jpg|thumb|Lichen-covered tree, Tresco]][[File:Tussocks - geograph.org.uk - 452055.jpg|left|thumb|Tussocks - geograph.org.uk - 452055]] As a result, the amount of [[lichens]] found in the affected areas decrease.<ref name=EPA /> This affects the entire ecosystem, as lichens are a vital food source for [[caribou]] that are commonly found in arctic regions.<ref name=EPA /> The degradation of permafrost and its effects on vegetation is a complex and intricate cycle; thus far the thawing permafrost has two major effects on vegetation: 1. Permafrost thaw in ice-rich soils equates to a loss of terrestrial ecosystems and an increase in aquatic or wetland ecosystems. 2. Permafrost thawing in the upland regions results in improved soil drainage leading to the alpine meadows undergoing a transformation to either shrub communities or drought communities.<ref name=Zhao-ping />
[[File:Permafrost - ice wedge.jpg|left|thumb|Permafrost - ice wedge]]

===Soil sustainability===
Permafrost is integral to soil stability in arctic regions.<ref name="Task Force">{{cite journal|last=Hinkel|first=Kenneth M|coauthors=Frederick E. Nelson, Walter Parker, Vladimir Romanovsky, Orson Smith, Walter Tucker, Ted Vinson, Lawson W. Brigham|title=Climate Change, Permafrost, and Impacts on Civil Infrastructure|journal=U.S. Arctic Research Commission Permafrost Task Force|year=2003|pages=1–61|url=http://www.arctic.gov/publications/other/permafrost.pdf|accessdate=20 November 2012}}</ref> Melting permafrost causes the surrounding soil to become unstable and settle.<ref name="Task Force" /> As permafrost melts, surrounding lakeshore destabilization takes place.<ref name=Peatland>{{cite journal|last=Dyke|first=Larry D|coauthors=Wendy E. Sladen|title=Permafrost and Peatland Evolution in the Northern Hudson Bay Lowland, Manitoba|journal=Artic|year=2010|volume=63|issue=4|pages=429–441|accessdate=1 November 2012}}</ref> Consequently, bank materials slump into the lakes decreasing oxygen concentration.<ref name=fisheries /> As a result, water temperature increases which allows [[bacteria]] to flourish.<ref name=fisheries /> The abundant bacteria produce carbon dioxide and methane gas causing the lakes and ponds to produce a significant source of greenhouse gas.<ref name=fisheries /> This increased methane release is further amplified as melting permafrost exposes previously buried soil. [[Methane]] and [[carbon dioxide]] stored in the organic matter seep into the atmosphere and contribute further to the climate change problem.<ref name=fisheries />
Similar to lake shore destabilization, melting permafrost causes bank materials to slump into river water which causes sedimentation of fish bearing streams and adversely effects habitat and health of salmon and other aquatic species.<ref name="Haeberli & Beniston">{{cite journal|last=Haeberli|first=Wifried|coauthors=Martin Beniston|title=Climate change and its impacts on glaciers and permafrost in the alps|journal=Research for mountain area development: Europe|year=1998|volume=27|issue=4|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4314732 .|accessdate=23 November 2012|publisher=Springer}}</ref>
Settlement of surface soil associated with melting permafrost leads to significant infrastructure instability and damage to roads, bridges, buildings, homes, pipelines and airstrips in affected areas.<ref name="Task Force" />

==Impact on natural resources==

===Drinking water===
In rural Africa and the Middle East, when droughts dry up the regular water supply, rural and impoverished families are forced to resort to drinking the dirty, sediment-and-parasite-laden water that sits in puddles and small pools on the surface of the earth. Many are aware of the presence of contamination, but will drink from these sources nonetheless in order to avoid dying of dehydration. It has been estimated that up to 80% of human illness in the world can be attributed to contaminated water.<ref>http://globalwater.org/background.htm)</ref>

When there is an adequate amount of drinking water, humans drink from different sources than their livestock. However, when drought occurs and drinking water slowly disappears, catchment areas such as streams and depressions in the ground where water gathers are often shared between people and the livestock they depend on for financial and nutritional support, and this is when humans can fall seriously ill. Although some diseases that are transferred to humans can be prevented by boiling the water, many people, living on just a litre or two of water per day, refuse to boil, as it loses a certain percentage of the water to steam.<ref>(http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2006-03-22-voa28/324586.html)</ref>

The sharing of water between livestock and humans is one of the most common factors in the transmission of non-tuberulosis mycobacteria (NTM). NTM is carried in cattle and pig feces, and if this contaminates the drinking water supply, it can result in pulmonary disease, disseminated disease or localized lesions in humans with both compromised and competent immune systems.<ref>(http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/11/320)</ref> During drought, water supplies are even more susceptible to harmful algal blooms and microorganisms.<ref>(http://www.nrdc.org/health/climate/drought.asp)</ref> Algal blooms increase water turbidity, suffocating aquatic plants, and can deplete oxygen, killing fish. Some kinds of blue-green algae create neurotoxins, hepatoxins, cytotoxins or endotoxins that can cause serious and sometimes fatal neurological, liver and digestive diseases in humans. Cyanobacteria grow best in warmer temperatures (especially above 25 degrees Celsius), and so areas of the world that are experiencing general warming as a result of climate change are also experiencing harmful algal blooms more frequently and for longer periods of time. During times of intense precipitation (such as during the “wet season” in much of the tropical and sub-tropical world, including Australia and Panama, nutrients that cyanobacteria depend on are carried from groundwater and the earth’s surface into bodies of water. As drought begins and these bodies gradually dry up, the nutrients are concentrated, providing the perfect opportunity for algal blooms.<ref>http://community.gleon.org/sites/default/files/uploaded/Paerl%26Huisman_2008_Science_Blooms_0.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.cdph.ca.gov/healthinfo/environhealth/water/pages/bluegreenalgae.aspx</ref><ref>http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2008/world/us-faces-era-of-water-scarcity/</ref>

===Fresh water===
As the climate warms, it changes the nature of global rainfall, evaporation, snow, stream flow and other factors that affect water supply and quality. [[Freshwater]] resources are highly sensitive to variations in weather and climate. Climate change is projected to affect water availability. In areas where the amount of water in rivers and streams depends on snow melting, warmer temperatures increase the fraction of precipitation falling as rain rather than as snow, causing the annual spring peak in water runoff to occur earlier in the year. This can lead to an increased likelihood of winter [[flood]]ing and reduced late summer river flows. Rising sea levels cause saltwater to enter into fresh [[underground water]] and freshwater streams. This reduces the amount of freshwater available for drinking and farming. Warmer water temperatures also affect water quality and accelerate [[water pollution]].<ref>http://www.isse.ucar.edu/water_climate/impacts.html</ref>

===Food depletion===

==Impact on livestock==
Climate change is beginning to lead the global population into a food shortage, greatly affecting our [[livestock]] supply. Although the change in our climate is causing us to lose food, these sources are also contributing to climate change, essentially, creating a [[feedback loop]]. [[Greenhouse gases]], specifically from livestock, are one of the leading sources furthering global warming; these emissions, which drastically effect climatic change, are also beginning to harm our livestock in ways we could never imagine.

===Greenhouse gas effects===
Our agricultural food system is responsible for a significant amount of the greenhouse-gas emissions that are produced.<ref>[http://www.feu-us.org/images/The_Food_Gap.pdf The Food Gap: The Impacts of Climate Change on Food Production: a 2020 Perspective, 2011]</ref><ref name=strategies>{{Cite journal|author=Sharon Friel, Alan D. Dangour, Tara Garnett, Karen Lock, Zaid Chalabi, Ian Roberts, Ainslie Butler, Colin D. Butler, Jeff Waage, Anthony J. McMichael, Andy Haines|title=Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: food and agriculture|journal=The Lancet|year=2009|volume=374|issue=9706|pages=2016–2025|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61753-0}}</ref>

According to the [[IPCC]], it makes up between, at least, 10-12% of the emissions, and when there are changes in land due to the agriculture, it can even rise as high as 17%. More specifically, emissions from farms, such as [[nitrous oxide]], [[methane]] and [[carbon dioxide]], are the main culprits, and can be held accountable for up to half of the greenhouse-gases produced by the overall food industry, or 80% of all emissions just within agriculture.<ref name="strategies" />

The types of farm animals, as well as the food they supply can be put into two categories: [[monogastric]] and [[ruminant]]. Typically, beef and dairy, in other words, ruminant products, rank high in greenhouse-gas emissions; monogastric, or pigs and poultry-related foods, are low. The consumption of the monogastric types, therefore, yield less emissions. This is due to the fact that these types of animals have a higher feed-conversion efficiency, and also do not produce any methane.<ref name="strategies" />

As lower-income countries begin, and continue, to develop, the necessity for a consistent meat supply will increase.<ref name="strategies" /><ref name=impact>{{Cite journal|author=P.K. Thornton, J. van de Steeg, A. Notenbaert, M. Herrero|title=The impacts of climate change on livestock and livestock systems in developing countries: A review of what we know and what we need to know|journal=Agricultural Systems|year=2009|volume=101|issue=3|pages=113–127}}</ref> This means the cattle population will be required to grow in order to keep up with the demand, producing the highest possible rate of greenhouse-gas emissions.<ref name="strategies" />

There are some strategies that can be used to help soften the effects, and the further production of greenhouse-gas emissions. Although there are many, some of them include: a higher efficiency in livestock farming, which includes management, as well as technology; a more effective process of managing manure; a lower dependence upon fossil-fuels and nonrenewable resources; a variation in the animals’ eating and drinking duration, time and location; and a cutback in, both, the production and consumption of animal-sourced foods.<ref name="strategies" /><ref name="impact" /><ref>[http://www.cciarn.uoguelph.ca/updates_archived/World_Bank_Paper.pdf Climate Change and Agriculture: A Review of Impacts and Adaptions, 2003]</ref><ref name=who>[http://www.who.int/globalchange/publications/climchange.pdf Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and Responses, 2003]</ref>

===Heat stress===
[[Heat stress]] on livestock has a devastating effect on not only their growth and reproduction, but their food intake and production of dairy and meat. Cattle require a temperature range of 5-15 degrees Celsius, but upwards to 25 °C, to live comfortably, and once climate change increases the temperature, the chance of these changes occurring increases.<ref name="impact" /> Once the high temperatures hit, the livestock struggle to keep up their metabolism, resulting in decreased food intake, lowered activity rate, and a drop in weight. This causes a decline in livestock productivity and can be detrimental to the farmers and consumers. Obviously, the location and species of the livestock varies and therefore the effects of heat vary between them. This is noted in livestock at a higher elevation and in the [[tropics]], of which have a generally increased effect from climate change. Livestock in a higher elevation are very vulnerable to high heat and are not well adapted to those changes.

==Impact on plant based food==
[[Climate change]] has many potential impacts on the production of food crops—from [[food scarcity]] and nutrient deficiency to possible increased food production because of elevated [[CO2 emissions|carbon dioxide (CO2)]] levels—all of which directly affect [[human health]]. Part of this variability in possible outcomes is from the various [[climate change model]]s used to project potential impacts; each model takes into account different factors and so come out with a slightly different result.<ref name=Hertel>{{cite journal|last=Hertel|first=T|coauthors=Rosch, S.|title=Climate Change, Agriculture, and Poverty|journal=Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy|date=June 2010|volume=32|issue=3|pages=355–385|doi=10.1093/aepp/ppq016|accessdate=October 11, 2012}}</ref> A second problem comes from the fact that projections are made based on historical data which is not necessarily helpful in accurate forecasting as changes are occurring exponentially.<ref name="Ferber & Epstein">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Change Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|year=2011|publisher=California University Press|location=Los Angeles, California|author=Epstein, P.|coauthors=Ferber, D.}}</ref><ref name=Kul>{{cite journal|last=Kulshreshtha|first=S|title=Climate Change, Prairie Agriculture and Prairie Economy: The new normal|journal=Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics|date=March 2011|volume=59|issue=1|pages=19–44|doi=10.1111/j.1744-7976.2010.01211.x. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.ezproxy.tru.ca/doi/10.1111/j.1744-7976.2010.01211.x/abstract|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.ezproxy.tru.ca/doi/10.1111/j.1744-7976.2010.01211.x/abstract|accessdate=October 11, 2012}}</ref> As such, there are many different possible impacts—both positive and negative—that may result from climate change affecting global regions in different ways.<ref name=Kul/><ref name=Canada>{{cite web|title=Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation: A Canadian Perspective|url=http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/products-services/publications/climate-change/climate-change-impacts-adaptation/356|publisher=Natural Resources Canada|accessdate=October 11, 2012}}</ref>

===Food scarcity===
Food scarcity is a major concern for many populations and is one of the prominent concerns with the changing climate. Currently, 1/6 of the [[global population]] are without adequate food supply.<ref name=Beddington>{{cite journal|last=Beddington|first=J.|coauthors=Asaduzzaman, M., Clark, M., Bremauntz, A., Guillou, M., Jahn, M., Lin, E., Mamo, T., Negra, C., Nobre, C., Scholes, R., Sharma, R., Van Bo, N. & Wakhungu, J.|title=The role for scientists in tackling food insecurity and climate change|journal=Agriculture & Food Security|year=2012|volume=1|issue=10|url=http://www.agricultureandfoodsecurity.com/content/1/1/10|doi=10.1186/2048-7010-1-10.http://www.agricultureandfoodsecurity.com/content/1/1/10|accessdate=October 11, 2012}}</ref> By 2050, the global population is projected to reach 9 billion requiring global food productions to increase by 50% to meet population demand.<ref name=Beddington/><ref name=Chakra>{{cite journal|last=Chakraborty|first=S.|coauthors=Newton, A. C.|title=Climate change, plant diseases and food security: an overview|journal=Plant Pathology|year=2011|volume=60|issue=1|pages=2–14|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3059.2010.02411.x|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.ezproxy.tru.ca/doi/10.1111/j.1365-3059.2010.02411.x/abstract|accessdate=November 21, 2012}}</ref> In short, food scarcity is a growing concern that, according to many researchers, is projected to worsen with climate change because of a number of factors including [[extreme weather]] events and an increase in [[pest (organism)|pests]] and [[pathogens]].

===Extreme weather===

====Rising temperatures====
As the [[temperature]] changes and weather patterns become more extreme, areas which were historically good for farmland will no longer be as amicable.<ref name=Connor>{{cite journal|last=Connor|first=Jeffery|coauthors=Schwabe, K., King, D. & Knapp, K.|title=Irrigated agriculture and climate change: The influence of water supply variability and salinity on adaptation|journal=Ecological Economics|year=2012|volume=12|pages=149–157|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.02.021|accessdate=October 11, 2012}}</ref><ref name=Sindhu>{{cite journal|last=Sindhu|first=J|title=Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture|journal=Indian Journal of Science and Technology|year=2011|volume=4|issue=3|pages=348–353|url=http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.tru.ca/ehost/detail?sid=90c5e3a4-9620-4a2b-83bc-c3eca5ddd89c%40sessionmgr4&vid=1&hid=15&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=a9h&AN=68629943|accessdate=October 11, 2012}}</ref> The current prediction is for temperature increase and precipitation decrease for major [[arid]] and [[semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] regions ([[Middle East]], [[Africa]], [[Australia]], [[Southwest United States]], and [[Southern Europe]]).<ref name=Connor/><ref name=Tubiello>{{cite journal|last=Tubiello|first=F.|coauthors=Rosenzweig C.|title=Developing climate change impact metrics for agriculture|journal=The Integrated Assessment Journal|year=2008|volume=8|issue=1}}</ref> In addition, crop yields in [[tropical regions]] will be negatively affected by the projected moderate increase in temperature (1-2°C) expected to occur during the first half of the century.<ref name="Tubiello & Soussana">{{cite journal|last=Tubiello|first=F.|coauthors=Soussana, J.|title=Crop and pasture response to climate change|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|year=2007|volume=104|issue=50}}</ref> During the second half of the century, further warming is projected to decrease [[crop]] yields in all regions including [[Canada]] and [[Northern United States]].<ref name=Tubiello/> Many [[staple crop]]s are extremely sensitive to heat and when temperatures rise over 36°C, soybean seedlings are killed and corn pollen loses its vitality.<ref name="Ferber & Epstein">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Change Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about it|year=2011|publisher=University California Press|location=Los Angeles, California|author=Paul Epstein|authorlink1=Paul Epstein|coauthors=Dan Ferber}}</ref><ref name=Thomson>{{cite journal|last=Thomson|first=L|coauthors=Macfadyen, S., Hoffmann, A.|title=Predicting the effects of climate change on natural enemies of agricultural pests|journal=Biological Control|year=2010|volume=52|pages=296–306|doi=10.1016/j.biocontrol.2009.01.022|accessdate=November 22, 2012}}</ref> Scientists project that an annual increase of 1°C will in turn decrease wheat, rice and corn yields by 10%.<ref name=Tubiello/><ref name="Fischer & Shah">{{cite journal|last=Fischer|first=G.|coauthors=Shah, M., Tubiello, N. & van Velhuizen, H.|title=Socio-economic and climate change impacts on agriculture: an integrated assessment, 1990–2080|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|year=2005|volume=360|pages=2067–2083|doi=10.1098/rstb.2005.1744}}</ref>

There are, however, some positive possible aspects to climate change as well. The projected increase in temperature during the first half of the century (1-3°C) is expected to benefit crop and pasture yields in the [[temperate region]]s.<ref name=Hertel/><ref name="Ferber & Epstein"/><ref name="Tubiello & Van der Velde">{{cite journal|last=Tubiello|first=F|coauthors=van der Velde, M.|title=Land and water use options for climate change adaptation and mitigation in agriculture|journal=SOLAW Background Thematic Report - TR04A|url=http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/solaw/files/thematic_reports/TR_04a_web.pdf}}</ref> This will lead to higher winter temperatures and more frost-free days in these regions; resulting in a longer [[growing season]], increased thermal resources and accelerated maturation.<ref name=Kul/><ref name=Canada/> If the climate scenario results in mild and wet weather, some areas and crops will suffer, but many may benefit from this.<ref name=Hertel/>

====Drought and flood====
Extreme weather conditions continue to decrease crop yields in the form of [[droughts]] and [[floods]]. While these weather events are becoming more common, there is still uncertainty and therefore a lack of preparedness as to when and where they will take place.<ref name=Canada/><ref name=Kristjanson>{{cite journal|last=Kristjanson,|first=P.|coauthors=Neufeldt, H., Gassner, A., Mango, J., Kyazze, F., Desta, S., Sayula, G.,Thiede, B., Förch, W., Thornton, P. & Coe, R.|title=Are food insecure smallholder households making changes in their farming practices? Evidence from East Africa|journal=Food Security|year=2012|volume=4|issue=3|pages=381–397|doi=10.1007/s12571-012-0194-z}}</ref> In extreme cases, floods destroy crops, disrupting agricultural activities and rendering workers jobless and eliminating food supply. On the opposite end of the spectrum, droughts can also wipe out crops. It is estimated that 35-50% of the world’s crops are at risk of drought.<ref name="Ferber & Epstein"/> [[Drought in Australia|Australia]] has been experiencing severe, recurrent droughts for a number of years, bringing serious despair to its farmers. The country’s rates of [[depression (mood)|depression]] and [[domestic violence]] are increasing and as of 2007, more than one hundred farmers had committed suicide as their thirsty crops slipped away.<ref name="Ferber & Epstein"/> Drought is even more disastrous in the [[developing world]], exacerbating the pre-existing [[poverty]] and fostering [[famine]] and [[malnutrition]].<ref name=Hertel/><ref name="Ferber & Epstein"/>

Droughts can cause farmers to rely more heavily on [[irrigation]]; this has downsides for both the individual farmers and the consumers. The equipment is expensive to install and some farmers may not have the financial ability to purchase it.<ref name=Connor/> The water itself must come from somewhere and if the area has been in a drought for any length of time, the rivers may be dry and the water must be transported from further distances. With 70% of “blue water” currently being used for global agriculture, any need over and above this could potentiate a [[water crisis]].<ref name=Hertel/><ref name=Beddington/> In [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], water is used to flood [[rice fields]] to control the weed population; with the projection of less precipitation for this area, this historical method of weed control will no longer be possible.<ref name=Rod10>{{cite journal|last=Rodenburg|first=J|coauthors=Riches, C., Kayeke, J.|title=Addressing current and future problems of parasitic weeds in rice|journal=Crop Protection|year=2010|volume=29|pages=210–221|doi=10.1016/j.cropro.2009.10.015|accessdate=November 24, 2012}}</ref>

With more costs to the farmer, some will no longer find it financially feasible to farm. [[Agriculture]] employs the majority of the population in most low-income countries and increased costs can result in worker layoffs or pay cuts.<ref name=Hertel/> Other farmers will respond by raising their food prices; a cost which is directly passed on to the consumer and impacts the affordability of food. Some farms do not export their goods and their function is to feed a direct family or community; without that food, people will not have enough to eat. This results in decreased production, increased food prices, and potential starvation in parts of the world.<ref name=Beddington/>



===Financial===
Some research suggests that initially climate change will help developing nations because some regions will be experiencing more negative climate change effects which will result in increased demand for food leading to higher prices and increased wages.<ref name=Hertel/> However, many of the projected [[climate change scenario|climate scenarios]] suggest a huge financial burden. For example, the [[heat wave]] that passed through [[Europe]] in 2003 cost 13 billion euros in uninsured agriculture losses.<ref name="Tubiello & Soussana"/> In addition, during [[El Nino]] weather conditions, the chance of the Australian farmer’s income falling below average increased by 75%, greatly impacting the country’s [[GDP]].<ref name="Tubiello & Soussana"/> The agriculture industry in [[India]] makes up 52% of their employment and the [[Canadian Prairies]] supply 51% of Canadian agriculture; any changes in the production of food crops from these areas could have profound effects on the [[economy]].<ref name=Kul/><ref name=Sindhu/> This could negatively affect the affordability of food and the subsequent health of the population.

===Pests and pathogens===
Currently, CO2 levels are 40% higher than they were in [[pre-industrial agriculture|pre-industrial]] times.<ref name="Ferber & Epstein"/> This diminishes nutritional content for both human and insect consumption. Studies have shown that when CO2 levels rise, [[soybean]] leaves are less nutritious; therefore plant-eating beetles have to eat more to get their required [[nutrients]].<ref name="Ferber & Epstein"/> In addition, soybeans are less capable of defending themselves against the predatory insects under high CO2. The CO2 diminishes the plant’s [[jasmonic acid]] production, an insect-killing poison that is excreted when the plant senses it’s being attacked. Without this protection, beetles are able to eat the soybean leaves freely, resulting in a lower crop yield.<ref name="Ferber & Epstein"/> This is not a problem unique to soybeans, and many plant species’ defense mechanisms are impaired in a high CO2 environment.<ref name=Chakra/>

Currently, pathogens take 10-16% of the global harvest and this level is likely to rise as plants are at an ever-increasing risk of exposure to pests and pathogens.<ref name=Chakra/> Historically, cold temperatures at night and in the winter months would kill off [[insects]], [[bacteria]] and [[fungi]]. The warmer, wetter winters are promoting fungal plant diseases like [[soybean rust]] to travel northward. Soybean rust is a vicious plant pathogen that can kill off entire fields in a matter of days, devastating farmers and costing billions in agricultural losses. Another example is the [[Mountain Pine Beetle]] epidemic in [[BC, Canada]] which killed millions of pine trees because the winters were not cold enough to slow or kill the growing beetle larvae.<ref name="Ferber & Epstein"/> The increasing incidence of flooding and heavy rains also promotes the growth of various other plant pests and diseases.<ref name=Rod11>{{cite journal|last=Rodenburg|first=J.|coauthors=Meinke, H., Johnson, D. E.|title=Challenges for weed management in African rice systems in a changing climate|journal=Journal of Agricultural Science|date=August 2011|volume=149|issue=4|pages=427–435|doi=10.1017/S0021859611000207|url=http://journals.cambridge.org.ezproxy.tru.ca/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=8312077|accessdate=November 21, 2012}}</ref> On the opposite end of the spectrum, drought conditions favour different kinds of pests like [[aphids]], [[whiteflies]] and [[locusts]].<ref name="Ferber & Epstein"/>

The competitive balance between plants and pests has been relatively stable for the past century, but with the rapidly shifting climate, there is a change in this balance which often favours the more biologically diverse [[weed]]s over the [[monocropping|monocrops]] most farms consist of.<ref name=Rod11/> Currently, weeds claim about one tenth of global crop yields annually as there are about eight to ten weed species in a field competing with crops.<ref name="Ferber & Epstein"/> Characteristics of weeds such as their [[genetic diversity]], cross-breeding ability, and fast-growth rates put them at an advantage in changing climates as these characteristics allow them to adapt readily in comparison to most farm's uniform crops, and give them a biological advantage.<ref name="Ferber & Epstein"/> There is also a shift in the distribution of pests as the altered climate makes areas previously uninhabitable more uninviting.<ref name=Thomson/> Finally, with the increased CO2 levels, [[herbicides]] will lose their efficiency which in turn increases the tolerance of weeds to herbicides.<ref name=Rod11/>

==Impact on nutrition==
Another area of concern is the effect of climate change on the nutritional content of food for human consumption. Studies show that increasing atmospheric levels of CO2 have an unfavourable effect on the nutrients in plants. As the [[carbon]] concentration in the plant’s tissues increase, there is a corresponding decrease in the concentration of [[Chemical element|elements]] such as [[nitrogen]], [[phosphorus]], [[zinc]] and [[iodine]]. Of significant concern is the [[protein]] content of plants, which also decreases in relation to elevating carbon content.<ref name=Kul/><ref name=Chakra/><ref name="Effects of CO2">{{cite journal|last=TAUB|first=D.|coauthors=Miller, B. & Allen, H.|title=Effects of elevated CO2 on the protein concentration of food crops: a meta-analysis|journal=Global Change Biology|year=2008|volume=14|pages=565–575|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01511.x}}</ref>

Irakli Loladze explains that the lack of [[essential nutrients]] in crops contributes the problem of [[micronutrient malnutrition]] in society, commonly known as “hidden hunger”; despite adequate caloric intake, the body still is not nutritionally satisfied and therefore continues to be “hungry”.<ref name=Loladze>{{cite journal|last=Loladze|first=I.|title=Rising atmospheric CO2 and human nutrition: toward globally imbalanced plant stoichiometry?|journal=TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution|year=2002|volume=17|issue=10}}</ref> This problem is aggravated by the rising cost of food, resulting in a global shift towards diets which are less expensive, but high in [[calories]], [[fat]]s, and animal products. This results in [[undernutrition]] and an increase in [[obesity]] and diet-related [[chronic diseases]].<ref name=Beddington/><ref name=Loladze/>

Countries worldwide are already impacted by deficiencies in micronutrients and are seeing the effects in the health of their populations. [[Iron deficiency]] affects more than 3.5 billion people; increasing [[maternal mortality]] and hindering [[cognitive development]] in children, leading to education losses. [[Iodine deficiency]] leads to ailments like [[goitre]], [[brain damage]] and [[cretinism]] and is a problem in at least 130 different countries.<ref name=Loladze/> Even though these deficiencies are invisible, they have great potential to impact human health on a global scale.

It must also be noted that small increases in CO2 levels can cause a CO2 fertilization effect where the growth and reproduction abilities of [[C3 carbon fixation|C3]] plants such as soybeans and [[rice]] are actually enhanced by 10-20% in laboratory experiments. This does not take into account, however, the additional burden of pests, pathogens, nutrients and water affecting the crop yield.<ref name="Effects of CO2"/><ref name=Gregory>{{cite journal|last=Gregory|first=P|coauthors=Johnson, S., Newton, A., Ingram, J.|title=Integrating pests and pathogens into the climate change/food security debate|journal=Journal of Experimental Botany|year=2009|volume=60|issue=10|pages=2827–2838|doi=10.1093/jxb/erp080|accessdate=November 22, 2012}}</ref>

==Adaptation and mitigation strategies==
While researchers acknowledge there are possible benefits, most agree that the negative consequences of climate change will outweigh any potential benefits and instead the shifting climate will result in more benefits to developed countries and more detriments to developing countries; exacerbating the discrepancy between wealthy and impoverished nations.<ref name=Chakra/><ref name="Fischer & Shah" /><ref name=Gregory/> By thoughtful and proactive efforts, climate change can be mitigated by addressing these issues with a [[multidisciplinary approach]] that works on a [[Earth|global]], [[nation]]al and [[community]] basis that recognizes the uniqueness of each country’s situation.<ref name=Beddington/><ref name=Sindhu/>

According to a study of [[East Africa]]’s smallholder farms, impacts of climate change on agriculture are already being seen there resulting in changes to farming practices such as [[intercropping]], crop, soil, land, water and livestock management systems, and introduction of new technologies and seed varieties by some of the farmers.<ref name=Kristjanson>{{cite journal}}</ref> Some other suggestions such as eliminating [[supply chain]] and household food waste, encouraging diverse and vegetable-rich diets, and providing global access to foods ([[food aid]] programs) have been suggested as ways to adapt.<ref name=Hertel/><ref name=Beddington/><ref name=Chakra/> Many researchers agree that agricultural innovation is essential to addressing the potential issues of climate change. This includes better management of soil, water-saving technology, matching crops to environments, introducing different crop varieties, crop rotations, appropriate [[fertilization]] use, and supporting community-based adaptation strategies.<ref name=Kul/><ref name=Beddington/><ref name=Sindhu/><ref name=Rod11/><ref name=IFPRI>{{cite web|last=Nelson|first=G|title=Climate Change: Impact on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation|url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/climate-change-impact-agriculture-and-costs-adaptation|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|accessdate=October 11, 2012}}</ref> On a government and global level, research and investments into [[agricultural productivity]] and [[infrastructure]] must be done to get a better picture of the issues involved and the best methods to address them. [[Government policies]] and programs must provide environmentally sensitive government [[subsidies]], educational campaigns and economic incentives as well as funds, [[insurance]] and safety nets for vulnerable populations.<ref name=Hertel/><ref name=Beddington/><ref name=Chakra/><ref name=Sindhu/><ref name=IFPRI/> In addition, providing [[early warning systems]], and accurate [[weather forecasts]] to poor or remote areas will allow for better preparation; by using and sharing the available technology, the global issue of climate change can be addressed and mitigated by the global community.<ref name=Beddington/>

==Ocean acidification and human health==

===Overview===
Perhaps one of the most recent adverse effects of [[climate change]] to be explored is that of [[ocean acidification]]. Our [[oceans]] cover approximately 71 percent of the [[Earth]]s surface and support a diverse range of [[ecosystems]], which are home to over 50 percent of all the [[species]] on the planet.<ref name=NOAA>{{cite web|last=NOAA|first=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|title=Ocean|url=http://www.noaa.gov/ocean.html|accessdate=November 29, 2012}}</ref> Oceans regulate [[climate]] and [[weather]] as well as providing [[nutrition]] for a vast variety of species, humans included.<ref name=NOAA/> Covering such an extensive part of the planet has allowed the oceans to absorb a large portion of the [[CO2 emissions|carbon dioxide (CO2)]] from the [[atmosphere]].<ref name=raven99>{{Cite journal| last=Raven | first=J. A. | coauthors=Falkowski, P. G. | year=1999 | title=Oceanic sinks for atmospheric {{co2}} | journal=Plant, Cell & Environment| volume=22 | pages=741–755 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-3040.1999.00419.x| issue=6}}</ref> This process is part of the [[carbon cycle]] in which the fluxes of [[CO2 emissions|carbon dioxide (CO2)]] in Earths [[atmosphere]], [[biosphere]] and [[lithosphere]] are described.<ref>
{{cite web |title=carbon cycle |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |accessdate= 29 Nov 2012 |url=http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020247}}</ref> Humans have drastically added to the amount of [[CO2 emissions|carbon dioxide (CO2)]] in the atmosphere through the burning of [[fossil fuels]] and the process of [[deforestation]]. Oceans work as a sink absorbing excess [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}). As the oceans absorb [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}) it breaks down into [[carbonic acid]], a mild acid, this neutralizes the normally [[alkaline]] ocean water. As a result the pH in the oceans is declining. In the research surrounding global climate change we are only just beginning to realize that our oceans can sequester a finite amount of CO2 before we start seeing impacts on marine life that could lead to devastating losses. Acidification of our oceans has the potential to drastically alter life as we know it - from [[extreme weather]] patterns and [[food scarcity]] to a loss of millions of species from the planet - all of these consequences hold the potential to directly affect [[human health]].

===Chemistry===

The mechanism by which CO2 is absorbed into the ocean is basic chemistry. CO2 combines with [[water]] H2O to form [[carbonic acid]] ({{chem|H|2|CO|3}}) then eventually dissociates into [[carbonate]] ({{chem|CO|3|2-}}) and [[hydrogen]] ions ({{chem|H|+}}). The free [[hydrogen]] ions ({{chem|H|+}}) lower the [[pH]] of the surrounding waters making it acidic. The mechanism is shown here
<center> CO2 (aq) + H2O <math>\leftrightarrow</math> H2CO3 <math>\leftrightarrow</math> HCO3− + H+ <math>\leftrightarrow</math> CO32− + 2 H+. </center>
According to our records since the [[pre-industrial]] age pH has already dropped approximately 0.1 pH unit, or 30 percent because the pH scale is [[logarithmic scale|logarithmic]].<ref name=book>{{cite book|last=Epstein|first=Paul R.|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles California|isbn=978-0-520-26909-5|pages=136–137}}</ref> If we continue with business as usual it is expected that by mid-century pH could drop another o.3 pH units - at this rate our oceans would be two and a half times as acidic then previous levels.<ref name=book/>

===Temperature===
Decreasing pH and rising water temperatures due to global warming and increased greenhouse gas emissions work [[synergistically]]. When the temperature rises, the chemical reaction above proceeds at a faster rate therefore, the water becomes more acidic as it warms. Conversely, warmer water is unable to hold as much CO2 therefore, it releases more into the atmosphere, in turn, making the atmosphere warmer further warming the oceans water.<ref name=temp>{{cite web|last=Zukerman|first=Wendy|title=Warmer Oceans release CO2 faster than thought|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20413-warmer-oceans-release-co2-faster-than-thought.html|accessdate=November 29, 2012}}</ref>

===Impacts on marine life===

Acidification has multiple implications on marine life such as [[physiological]] sensitivities, reduced [[metabolism]], decreased [[oxygen]] uptake and [[reproductive]] success.<ref name=Rob>{{cite web|last=Rob|first=Dunbar|title=The threat of ocean acidification|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evfgbVjb688|publisher=Ted Talks|accessdate=November 20, 2012}}</ref> Looking at it from a bottom up approach, the simpler organisms are considered first moving up the food chain culminating with the ultimate apex predator, man.

===Coral===
[[Coral reefs]] appear to be both negatively and positively affected by pH and temperature changes. [[Coral]]s in currently warmer waters appear to break down and die off as a consequence of lower pH and higher water temperatures, whereas corals in cooler waters appear to become hardier and grow faster due to pH changes and temperatures rising.<ref name=Australian>{{cite journal|author=Australian Maritime Digest|title=Climate Change Impacts Will Alter What Reefs Look Like|journal=Australian Maritime Digest|date=August 1, 2012|volume=214|issue=7|pages=11–12|url=http://aama.asn.au/download/AMD%20August%202012.pdf|accessdate=November 29, 2012}}</ref> This change in coral community composition will allow formerly cold water corals to slowly move into areas previously occupied by warm water species.<ref name=Australian/> This shift in regional locality will likely be a slow, laborious process and the mean time could actually lead to more pronounced ‘dead zones’ throughout the oceans. Acidification and temperature increase leads to ‘dead zones’, because it allows for [[eutrophication]] to occur. Blooms of algae and phytoplankton explode removing oxygen during their eventual death and decomposition.<ref name=review>{{cite journal|last=Gosling|first=Simon N.|coauthors=Rachel Warren, Nigel W. Arnell, Peter Good, John Caesar, Dan Bernie, Jason A. Lowe, Paul van der Linden, Jesse R. O'Hanley, Stephen M. Smith|title=A review of recent developments in climate change science. Part II: The global-scale impacts of climate change|journal=Progress in Physical Geography|year=2011|volume=35|issue=4|pages=443–464|doi=10.1177/0309133311407650|accessdate=November 20, 2012}}</ref> The Southern Ocean is an area of particular high risk.<ref name=review/> A decrease in coral reef cover leads to less viable fish habitat and a breakdown in the food chain, further exacerbating ‘dead zones’.<ref name=Australian/> In 2008, it was estimated that global fisheries dependent upon species associated with coral reefs topped US$5.7 billion annually.<ref name=review/>

===Oceanic calcifying organisms===
Ocean acidification also leads to a reduction in the ability for [[calcareous]] organisms to build and maintain their shells, skeletons and other structures.<ref name=review/><ref name=Bio/><ref name=Geo/><ref name=sediment>{{cite journal|last=Tynan|first=Sarah|coauthors=Bradley N. Opdyke|title=Effects of lower surface ocean pH upon the stability of shallow water carbonate sediments|journal=Science of the Total Environment|date=February 2011|volume=409|issue=6|pages=1082–1086|accessdate=November 20, 2012}}</ref> The decreased pH renders them unable to fix [[calcium]] Ca2 to [[carbonate]] ({{chem|CO|3|2-}}) for production of calcium-based protection, and they become easy prey for predators, if they are able to survive the more acidic conditions in the first place.<ref name=Geo>{{cite journal|last=Kolbert|first=Elizabeth|title=The Acid Sea|journal=National Geographic|date=April 2011|volume=219|issue=4|accessdate=November 29, 2012}}</ref> Many island states and developing nations depend upon such organisms (like [[mussels]] and [[oysters]]) for [[sustenance]] and income since they may occupy land that has little terrestrial agricultural value.<ref name=review/> The decrease in native species allows for non-native, [[invasive species]] to take hold and a shift from calcareous species to soft-bodied inverts takes place.<ref name=Bio>{{cite journal|last=Dijkstra|first=Jennifer A.|coauthors=Erica L. Westerman and Larry G. Harris|title=The effects of climate change on species composition, succession and phenology: a case study|journal=Global Change Biology|date=October 27, 2010|issue=17|pages=2360–2369|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02371|accessdate=November 20, 2012}}</ref> This also affects the food chain from a bottom-up perspective.<ref name=Bio/>

===Fish===
Fish are not immune to ocean acidification either. Not only does the lower pH affect their food availability, it has also been shown to impair their senses. It affects their sense of smell, hearing, balance and ability to sense predators.<ref name=review/> Further, studies have shown that acidification has positive and negative impacts on [[fecundity]], distribution range, growth and seasonal movements.<ref name=Australian/><ref name=sediment/><ref name=fish>{{cite journal|last=Griffith|first=Gary P.|coauthors=Elizabeth A. Fulton, Rebecca Gorton, Anthony J. Richardson|title=Predicting Interactions among Fishing, Ocean Warming, and Ocean Acidification in a Marine System with Whole-Ecosystem Models|journal=Conservation Biology|date=June 2012|volume=26|issue=6|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2012.01937|accessdate=November 20, 2012}}</ref> Some fish, like the [[anemone fish]], have been able survive the pH shifts and live to reproduce, provided the parents existed in the same conditions prior to offspring being born.<ref name=Australian/> More studies need to be conducted with a wider range of species to determine the full scope of implications associated with this phenomenon. In one study from Southeastern [[Australia]], ocean acidification had the largest negative impact on total fish [[biomass]], more so than either fishing or ocean warming alone.<ref name=fish/> Overall, ocean acidification had the single largest negative effect on total biomass (top predators, fishes, benthic [[invertebrates]], [[plankton]], and primary producers).<ref name=fish/> Taken together, the additive effects of more than one stressor at the community level resulted in decreased biomass in majority of the marine communities.

===Human Health===
The health of our oceans has a direct effect on the health humans. According to Small and Nicholls, they estimated that 1.2 billion people worldwide, lived in the near-coastal region (within 100 km and 100m of the shoreline).<ref name=settle>{{cite journal|last=Small|first=Christopher|coauthors=Nicholls, Robert J.|title=A Global Analysis of Human Settlement in Coastal Zones|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|year=2003|volume=19|issue=3|pages=584–599|accessdate=November 20, 2012}}</ref> This data was collected in 1990 and therefore is a conservative estimate in modern terms. In the U.S. alone 53% of the population lives within 50 miles of the coastal shoreline.<ref name=grass>{{cite journal|last=Delorenzo|first=Marie E.|coauthors=Wallace, Sarah C., Danese, Loren E., Baird, Thomas D.|title=Temperature and Salinity effects on the toxicity of common pesticides to the grass shrimp|journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Health|year=2008|doi=10.1080/03601230902935121|accessdate=November 20, 2012}}</ref> Humans rely heavily on oceans for food, employment, recreation, weather patterns and transportation.<ref name=guest>{{cite journal|last=Sandifer|first=Paul A.|coauthors=A.Frederick Holland, Teri K. Rowles, Geoffrey I. Scott|title=The Oceans and Human Health|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|date=June 2004|volume=112|issue=8|pages=454–455|accessdate=November 20, 2012}}</ref> In the U.S. alone the lands adjacent to the oceans contribute over $1 trillion annually through these various activities not to mention pharmaceutical and medicinal discoveries.<ref name=guest/> In all, the oceans are very important for our survival as a species.

====Infiltrating fresh water and extreme weather====
With degradation of protective coral reefs through acidic erosion, bleaching and death, salt water is able to infiltrate fresh ground water supplies that large populations depend on.<ref name=atoll>{{cite journal|last=Terry|first=James|coauthors=Chui, Ting Fong May|title=Evaluating the fate of freshwater lenses on atoll islands after eustatic sea-level rise and cyclone driven inundation: A modelling approach.|journal=Global & Planetary Change|date=May 2012|volume=88-89|pages=76–84|accessdate=November 20, 2012}}</ref><ref name=child>{{cite journal|last=Khan|first=Aneire E.|coauthors=Andrew Ireson, Sari Kovats, Sontosh Kumar Mojumder, Amirul Khusru, Atiq Rahman, Paolo Vineis|title=Drinking Water Salinity and Maternal Health in Coastal Bangladesh: Implications of Climate Change|journal=Environmental Health
Perspectives|date=September 2011|volume=119|issue=9|pages=1328–1332|accessdate=November 20, 2012}}</ref> Nowhere is this more evident than atoll islands. These islands possess limited freshwater supplies, namely ground water lenses and rain fall. When the protective coral reefs surrounding them erodes due to higher temperatures and acidic water chemistry, salt water is able to infiltrate the lens and contaminate the drinking water supply.<ref name=atoll/> In coastal Bangladesh it has been demonstrated that seasonal hypertension in pregnant women is connected with such phenomenon due to high sodium intake from drinking water.<ref name=child/> Reef erosion, coupled with sea level rise, tends to flood low lying areas more frequently during storm surges and weather events. Warming ocean waters generate larger and more devastating weather events that can decimate coastal populations especially without the protection of coral reefs.

===Food safety===
Our insatiable appetite for seafood of all types has led to overfishing and has already significantly strained marine food stocks to the point of collapse in many cases. With seafood being a major protein source for so much of the population, there are inherent health risks associated with global warming. As mentioned above increased agricultural runoff and warmer water temperature allows for eutrophication of ocean waters. This increased growth of algae and phytoplankton in turn can have dire consequences. These algal blooms can emit toxic substances that can be harmful to humans if consumed. Organisms, such as shellfish, marine crustaceans and even fish, feed on or near these infected blooms, ingest the toxins and can be consumed unknowingly by humans. One of these toxin producing algae is Pseudo-nitzschia fraudulenta. This species produces a substance called [[domoic acid]] which is responsible for [[amnesic shellfish poisoning]].<ref name=pseudo>{{cite journal|last=Tatters|first=Avery O.|coauthors=Fei-Xue Fu, David A. Hutchins|title=High CO2 and Silicate Limitation Synergistically Increase the Toxicity of Pseudo-nitzschia fraudulenta|journal=PLoS ONE|date=February 2012|volume=7|issue=2|pages=1–7|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0032116|accessdate=November 20, 2012|bibcode = 2012PLoSO...732116T }}</ref> The toxicity of this species has been shown to increase with greater CO2 concentrations associated with ocean acidification.<ref name=pseudo/> Some of the more common illnesses reported from harmful algal blooms include; [[Ciguatera fish poisoning]], [[paralytic shellfish poisoning]], azaspiracid shellfish poisoning, [[diarrhetic shellfish poisoning]], [[neurotoxic shellfish poisoning]] and the above mentioned amnesic shellfish poisoning.<ref name=pseudo/>

==Extreme weather events==
Infectious disease often accompanies [[extreme weather]] events, such as floods, earthquakes and drought. These local epidemics occur due to loss of infrastructure, such as hospitals and sanitation services, but also because of changes in local ecology and environment. For example, malaria outbreaks have been strongly associated with the El Niño cycles of a number of countries (India and Venezuela, for example). [[El Niño-Southern Oscillation|El Niño]] can lead to drastic, though temporary, changes in the environment such as temperature fluctuations and [[flash flood]]s.<ref name=Epstein/> Because of global warming there has been a marked trend towards more variable and anomalous weather. This has led to an increase in the number and severity of extreme weather events. This trend towards more variability and fluctuation is perhaps more important, in terms of its impact on human health, than that of a gradual and long-term trend towards higher average temperature.<ref name=Epstein/>

===Floods===
[[Health]] concerns around the world can be linked to [[floods]]. With the increase in temperatures world wide due to climate change the increase in flooding is unavoidable.<ref>{{cite web|last=Vigran|first=Anna|title=With Climate Change Comes Floods|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=18022014}}</ref> [[Floods]] have short and long term negative implications to peoples' health and well being. Short term implications include [[Death|mortalities]], [[injuries]] and [[diseases]], while long term implications include [[non-communicable diseases]] and [[psychosocial]] health aspects.<ref name=alderman>{{cite journal|last=Alderman|first=Katarzyna|coauthors=Lyle R. Turner, Shilu Tong|title=Floods and human health: A systematic review|journal=Environment International|date=June 2012|volume=47=pages=37-47}}</ref>

Moralities are not uncommon when it comes to floods. The Countries with lower [[incomes]] are more likely to have more [[Death|fatalities]], because of the lack of [[resources]] they have and the supplies to prepare for a flood. This does depend on the type and properties of the flood. For example if there is a [[flash flood]] it would not matter how prepared you are. Fatalities connected directly to floods are usually caused by [[drowning]]; the waters in a flood are very deep and have strong [[current (fluid)|currents]].<ref name=alderman/> [[Deaths]] do not just occur from drowning, deaths are connected with [[dehydration]], [[heat stroke]], [[heart attack]] and any other [[illness]] that needs [[medical supplies]] that cannot be delivered.<ref name=alderman/>

Injuries can lead to an excessive amount of morbidity when a flood occurs. Victims who already have a [[chronic illness]] and then sustain a non-fatal injury are put at a higher risk for that non-fatal injury to become [[Death|fatal]]. Injuries are not isolated to just those who were directly in the flood, [[rescue]] teams and even people delivering supplies can sustain an injury. Injuries can occur anytime during the flood process; before, during and after.<ref name=alderman/> Before the flood people are trying to [[emergency evacuation|evacuate]] as fast as they can, [[motor vehicle accidents]], in this case, are a primary source of injuries obtained post flood. During floods accidents occur with falling [[debris]] or any of the many fast moving objects in the water. After the flood rescue attempts are where large amounts of injuries can occur.<ref name=alderman/>

[[Communicable diseases]] are increased due to many [[pathogens]] and [[bacteria]] that are being transported by the [[water]]. In floods where there are many fatalities in the water there is a [[hygienic]] problem with the handling of bodies, due to the [[panic]] stricken mode that comes over a town in distress.<ref name=alderman/> There are many water [[contaminated]] diseases such as [[cholera]], [[hepatitis A]], [[hepatitis E]] and [[diarrheal diseases]], to mention a few. There are certain diseases that are directly correlated with floods they include any [[dermatitis]] and any [[wound]], [[nose]], [[throat]] or [[ear infection]]. [[Gastrointestinal disease]] and diarrheal diseases are very common due to a lack of clean water during a flood. Most of clean water supplies are contaminated when flooding occurs. Hepatitis A and E are common because of the lack of [[sanitation]] in the water and in living quarters depending on where the flood is and how prepared the [[community]] is for a flood.<ref name=alderman/>

[[Respiratory diseases]] are a common after the disaster has occurred. This depends on the amount of [[water damage]] and [[mold]] that grows after an incident. [[Vector (epidemiology)|Vector]] borne diseases increase as well due to the increase in still water after the floods have settled. The diseases that are vector borne are as follows: [[malaria]], [[dengue]], [[West Nile virus|West Nile]], [[yellow fever]].<ref name=alderman/>

Non-communicable diseases are a long-term effect of floods. They are either caused by a flood or they are worsened by a flood; they include [[cancer]], [[lung disease]] and [[diabetes]]. Floods have a huge impact on victims psychosocial [[integrity]]. People suffer from a wide spread variety of losses and [[stress (psychological)|stress]]. One of the most treated illness in long-term health problems are [[depression (mood)|depression]] caused by the flood and all the [[tragedy]] that flows with one.<ref name=alderman/>

===Drought===
Arguably one of the worst effects that drought has directly on human health is the destruction of food supply. Farmers who depend on weather to water their crops lose tons of crops per year due to drought. Plant growth is severely stunted without adequate water, and plant resistance mechanisms to fungi and insects weaken like human immune systems. The expression of genes is altered by increased temperatures, which can also affect a plant’s resistance mechanisms. One example is wheat, which has the ability to express genes that make it resistant to leaf and stem rusts, and to the Hessian fly; its resistance declines with increasing temperatures.
A number of other factors associated with lack of water may actually attract pestilent insects, as well- some studies have shown that many insects are attracted to yellow hues, including the yellowing leaves of drought-stressed plants.
During times of mild drought is when conditions are most suitable to insect infestation in crops; once the plants become too weakened, they lack the nutrients necessary to keep the insects healthy. This means that even a relatively short, mild drought may cause enormous damage- even though the drought on its own may not be enough to kill a significant portion of the crops, once the plants become weakened, they are at higher risk of becoming infested.<ref>
http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1054&context=barkbeetles</ref>

The results of the loss of crop yields affect everyone, but they can be felt most by the poorest people in the world. As supplies of corn, flour and vegetables decline, world food prices are driven up. Malnutrition rates in poor areas of the world skyrocket, and with this, dozens of associated diseases and health problems. Immune function decreases, so mortality rates due to infectious and other diseases climb. For those whose incomes were affected by droughts (namely agriculturalists and pastoralists), and for those who can barely afford the increased food prices, the cost to see a doctor or visit a clinic can simply be out of reach. Without treatment, some of these diseases can hinder one’s ability to work, decreasing future opportunities for income and perpetuating the vicious cycle of poverty.<ref>
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2793127/</ref>

===Glacial melting===
A [[glacier]] is a mass of ice that has originated from snow that has been compacted via pressure and have definite lateral limits and movements in definite directions.<ref name=Chinn>{{cite journal|last=Chinn|first=T.J.|title=Distribution of the glacial water resources of New Zealand|journal=Journal of Hydrology|year=2001|volume=40|issue=2|pages=139–187|accessdate=3 November 2012}}</ref> They are found in areas where the temperatures do not get warm enough to melt annual snow accumulation, thus resulting in many layers of snow piling up over many years, creating the pressure needed to make a glacier. [[Global climate change]] and fluctuation is causing an increasingly exponential melting of Earth’s glaciers. These melting glaciers have many [[social]] and [[ecological]] consequences that directly or indirectly impact the health and well-being of humans.<ref name=Orlove>{{cite journal|last=Orlove|first=B.|title=Glacier Retreat: Reviewing the Limits of Human Adaptation to Climate Change|journal=Environment|year=2009|volume=51|issue=3|pages=22–34|accessdate=26 October 2012}}</ref> The recession of glaciers change [[sea salt]], [[sediment]], and temperature ratios in the ocean which changes currents, weather patterns, and marine life.<ref name=Epstein>{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, changing health|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Los Angeles, California|isbn=0520269098|author=Epstein, P.;Ferber, D.}}</ref> The melt also [[ocean levels|increases ocean levels]] and decreases the [[Water availability|availability of water]] for human consumption, agriculture, and hydroelectricity. This aggravates and increases the likelihood of issues such as sanitation, [[world hunger]], population shifts, and [[Extreme weather|catastrophic weather]] such as flooding, drought, and world-wide temperature fluctuations.<ref name=Epstein/>

“Glacier mass-balances show consistent decreases over the last century in most regions of the world and retreat may be accelerating in many locations" <ref name=Dyurgerov>{{cite journal|last=Dyurgerov|first= Meier|title=Twentieth century climate change: Evidence from small glaciers|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2000|volume=97|issue=4|pages=1406|accessdate=4 November 2012|bibcode = 2000PNAS...97.1406D |doi = 10.1073/pnas.97.4.1406 }}</ref> with an average loss of ten meters per year,<ref name=Orlove/> nearly twice as fast as ten years ago.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dan|first=V.|title=Greenland glacier runoff doubled over past decade|url=http://usatoday.com/tech/science/2006-02-16-glacier-melt-x.htm|publisher=USA Today|accessdate=3 November 2012}}</ref> Glaciers currently cover ~10% of the Earth’s surface, or ~15 million km² and holds ~75% of Earth’s fresh water supply. Glacial retreat first gained the attention of alpinists and the tourist industry shortly after 1940 – when the globe warmed ~0.5°C.<ref name=Chinn/> Even with 62 years of awareness, [[climate change]] is just becoming an issue for some parts of society. Over this time period the [[alpine glaciers|cirque and steep alpine glaciers]] were able to [[acclimatize]] to the new temperatures posed by climate change; large [[valley glacier]]s have not yet made this adjustment. This means the large valley glaciers are rapidly retreating, as their mass is attempting to achieve equilibrium with the current climate. If regional [[snow line]]s stay constant, then the glaciers remain constant.<ref name=Chinn/> Today this is clearly not the case as global warming is causing mountain snow lines to rapidly retreat. Even the United States’ famous [[Glacier National Park (U.S.)|Glacier National Park]] is receding. More than two-thirds of its glaciers have disappeared and it is expected for them to be nonexistent in the park by the year 2030.<ref name=Hall>{{cite journal|last=Hall|first=Fagre|title=Modeled Climate Change in Glacier National Park, 1850-2100|journal=BioScience|year=2003|accessdate=4 November 2012}}</ref>

Glacial melt will affect [[Coastal wetland|low lying coastal wetlands]] via [[sea level rise]], change key drivers of [[fresh-water ecosystem]]s, shift the timing of snow packs, and alter the unique character of associated fresh water streams off of snow pack.<ref name=Jenkins>{{cite journal|author=K.M. Jenkins|coauthors=C. Kingsford, R.T., Closs, G.P., Wolfenden, B.J., Matthaei, C.D., and Hay, S.E.|title=Climate change and freshwater ecosystems in Oceania: an assessment of vulnerability and adaption opportunities|journal=Pacific Conservation Biology|year=2011|volume=17|pages=201–219|accessdate=26 October 2012}}</ref> It has also been stated that the sea level will rise 28–43 cm by 2100;<ref name=Jenkins/> if all the ice on Earth melts,it is predicted that the ocean level will increase 75 meters, destroying many coastal cities.<ref name=Epstein/> In addition, the freshwater swaps in northern areas are already affected by the intrusion of salt water. “Sea level rise will cause a change of state from freshwater to marine or [[Estuarine|estuarine ecosystems]], radically altering the composition of [[Biotic community|biotic communities]]".<ref name=Jenkins/>

Not only are glaciers causing a rise in sea level, they are causing an increase in [[El Niño Southern Oscillation]] (ESNO) and global temperature itself.<ref name=Chinn/> Glacier loss adds to global heat rise through a decrease in what is called [[ice-albedo feedback]]. As more ice melts, there is less [[Solar reflectance|solar reflectivity]] and less heat is reflected away from the Earth, causing more heat to be absorbed, and retained in the atmosphere and soil <ref name=Epstein/> In addition to the El Niño events, glacial melt is contributing to the rapid turnover of [[sea surface temperatures]] <ref name=Chinn/> and ocean salt content by diluting the ocean water and slowing the [[Atlantic conveyor belt|Atlantic conveyor belt's]] usually swift dive because of a top layer of buoyant, cold, fresh water that slows the flow of warm water to the north.<ref name=Epstein/>

Fifty percent of the world’s fresh water consumption is dependent glacial runoff.<ref name=Hall/> Earth's glaciers are expected to melt within the next forty years, greatly decreasing fresh water flow in the hotter times of the year, causing everyone to depend on rainwater, resulting in large shortages and fluctuations in fresh water availability which largely effects agriculture, power supply, and human health and well-being.<ref name=Epstein/> Many power sources and a large portion of agriculture rely on glacial runoff in the late summer. “In many parts of the world, disappearing [[mountain glacier]]s and droughts will make fresh, clean water for drinking, bathing, and other necessary human (and livestock) uses scarce" and a valuable commodity.<ref name=Epstein/>

==Deforestation==
[[File:Holzstaemme.JPG|thumb|right|Holzstaemme]]
[[Forest]]s account for approximately 30% of the Earth’s land surface.<ref name="forestryclimatechange">{{cite book|title=Forestry & Climate Change|year=2007|publisher=CAB International|isbn=9781845932947|author=Freer-Smith, P.H; Broadmeadow, M.S.J; Lynch, J.M}}</ref> The soils and ecosystems that exist within these forests store around 1200 gigatonnes of carbon. With the earth’s atmospheric concentration of [[carbon dioxide]] (CO2) recently reaching 391 ppm (parts per million) in October 2012,<ref>NOAA Mauna Loa dataset (reported online at: http://co2now.org/ )</ref><ref name = "Carbon Trends">{{cite web|last=Tans|first=Pieter|title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide|url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|accessdate=25 November 2012}}</ref> more than a 100 ppm increase from the [[Pre-industrial society|pre-industrial era]]<ref name="Etheridge1996">{{cite journal |last=Etheridge |first=D. M. |coauthors=L. P. Steele, R. L. Langenfelds, R. J. Francey, J.-M. Barnola, V. I. Morgan |year=1996 |title=Natural and anthropogenic changes in atmospheric {{CO2}} over the last 1000 years from air in Antarctic ice and firn |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=101 |issue=D2 |pages=4115–4128 |issn=0148-0227 |doi=10.1029/95JD03410 |bibcode = 1996JGR...101.4115E }}</ref> it is clear that the relationship between the Earth’s forests and atmosphere is critically important.<ref name="forestryclimatechange"/> During the 1980s it became increasingly clear that the [[Ecoregion#Terrestrial|terrestrial]] [[biosphere]] played an important part in terms of the global [[atmospheric carbon cycle|atmospheric carbon balance]]. It became apparent that the conversion of land, most notably deforestation in the tropics, caused large terrestrial carbon losses into the atmosphere forcing other [[carbon sink]]s to compensate.<ref name="forestryclimatechange"/>

===Tropical forests===
Tropical Forests account for just under 50% of the world's forests, however they contain as much carbon in their vegetation and soils as [[taiga|boreal]] and [[Forest#Temperate and boreal forest types|temperate type]] forests combined.<ref name=Houghton/> With trees in the tropics holding in general approximately 50% more carbon per hector than trees outside of the tropics, deforestation in these areas is more likely to lead to higher levels of carbon release.<ref name=Houghton/>

====Amazon rainforest====
[[Image:SlashandburninBrazil.jpg|thumb|right|Slash and burn forest removal in Brazil increased dramatically in the 1970s and 1980s.]]

Forests currently play a major role in carbon uptake in the global [[carbon cycle]].<ref name=dore>{{cite journal|last=Dore|first=Sabina|coauthors=Montes-Helu, M.; Hart, S.C.; Hungate, H.A.; Kock, G.W.; Moon, J.B.; Finkral, A.J.; Kolb, T.E.|title=Recovery of ponderosa pine ecosystem carbon and water fluxes from thinning and stand-replacing fire|journal=Global Change Biology|date=July 2012|volume=18|issue=10|pages=3171–3185|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02775.x}}</ref> The [[Amazon rain forest]] plays an important role by [[carbon sequestration|sequestering carbon]] under stable climatic conditions.<ref name=soares-filho>{{cite journal|last=Soares-Filho|first=Britaldo|coauthors=Silvestrini, R.; Nepstad, D.; Brando, P.; Rodrigues, H.; Alencar, A.; Coe, M.; Locks, C.; Lima, L.; Hissa, L.; Stickler, C.|title=Forest fragmentation, climate change and the understory regimes on the Amazonian landscapes of the Xingu headwaters|journal=Landscape Ecology|date=April 2012|volume=27|issue=4|pages=585–598|doi=10.1007/s10980-012-9723-6}}</ref> [[Forest fires]] are often not assigned a net emission of carbon as they are viewed as a bi-product of forest conversion for agriculture use, however accidental spread of fires beyond agriculture areas may contribute to increased [[Greenhouse gas|carbon emissions]].<ref name=houghton>{{cite journal|last=Houghton|first=R.A|title=Carbon emissions and the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in the tropics|journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability|date=December 2012|volume=4|issue=6|pages=597–603|doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2012.06.006}}</ref> If the carbon emissions from forest fires are due to a natural cycle of burning and regrowth, the net carbon balance is nearly zero.<ref name=houghton/> However current [[forest-fire models]] suggest that [[forest fragmentation]] and [[climate change]] could shift the Amazon forest from a carbon sink to a source of [[atmospheric CO2]].<ref name=soares-filho/> Recurrent fires increase pyrophytic vegetation, such as bamboos and grasses which also increase forest flammability thus increasing potential emissions.<ref name=soares-filho /> In 1997 and 1998 forest fires during the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation|El Niño]] drought affected at least 20,000 km2 in the Amazon leading to large smoke episodes which halted air traffic in the area and caused ships to collide at sea.<ref name=Ghazoul>{{cite book|title=Tropical Rain Forest Ecology, Diversity, and Conservations|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=9780199285884|author=Ghazoul G.; Sheil D.|chapter=14}}</ref> The short-term effects on human health effects were irritations of the respiratory tract, skin and eyes, [[bronchitis]], [[conjuctivitis]] as well as increased [[asthma]] attacks.<ref name=Ghazoul/>

The major drivers of deforestation and degradation in the Amazon are, forest conversions for [[shifting cultivation]], [[farm|croplands]], [[pastures]] as well as industrial and [[firewood|fuel wood]] harvest.<ref name=houghton /> When forests are converted to croplands all initial vegetation is replaced by crops causing a change in the carbon density.<ref name=houghton /> Cropland conversion also causes a 25-30% [[soil carbon]] reduction.<ref name=houghton /> Forest conversion to pastures for cattle is a major cause of deforestation in the Amazon, and although it does not cause the reduced soil carbon seen with croplands, it is still significant primarily due to its sheer magnitude.<ref name=houghton /> The harvest of both industrial wood and fuel wood causes increased carbon emissions due to burning and decay of wood products as well as reduced carbon density of forests.<ref name=houghton /> Tree plantations result in a carbon sink reducing [[atmospheric carbon dioxide]] in participating areas. However within tropical forests worldwide tree [[plantations]] have only accounted for an approximately 4% decrease in net carbon emissions.<ref name=houghton />

====Southeast Asia====

By [[World War II]] approximately one-third of the tropical forests in [[Southeast Asia]] had been cleared, with declines continuing past the mid-century mark.<ref name=Lambin>{{cite journal|last=Lambin|first=E.F.|coauthors=Helmut, G.J.|title=Regional Differences in Tropical Deforestation|journal=Environment|date=July 2003|volume=45|issue=6|pages=22–36|ISSN=00139157}}</ref> Over the past thirty years commercial logging for export has caused significant forest loss.<ref name=Lambin/> In the forested uplands of [[Indonesia]], in order to extract timber, large forestry corporations constructed road systems to allow access to previously inaccessible areas. After having logged a given area the loggers moved on and small farmers settled along the roads and cleared additional forests.<ref name=Lambin/> Logging companies shifted from one [[concession (contract)|concession]] to another, moving from country to country.<ref name=Lambin/> Increased market expansion for [[Dipterocarpaceae|tropical timber]] along with inferior law enforcement, vested interests, and corruption, allowed for illegal logging operations to exist.<ref name=Lambin/> The lowland forests of [[Laos]] and [[Cambodia]] have been subjected to increasingly intense [[shifting cultivation|swidden cultivation]] and the majority of [[old-growth forests]] have ceased to exist in these areas.<ref name=Lambin/> Forests generally hold 20 to 50 times more carbon than the ecosystem which replaces them,<ref name=Houghton>{{cite book|last=Houghton|first=R.A.|title=Tropical Deforestation and Climate Change|year=2005|publisher=Amazon Institute for Environmental Research|location=Brazil|isbn=858782712X|chapter=Tropical deforestation as a source of greenhouse gas emissions}}</ref> thus leading to a net increase of atmospheric C02.

====Mangroves====
[[Image:Mangrove.jpg|thumb|right|A red mangrove, ''Rhizophora mangle'']]
[[Mangroves]] are the salt-tolerant evergreen forests, found in the [[intertidal zones]] of sheltered shores, [[estuaries]], [[tidal creek]]s, [[backwater (river)|backwaters]], [[lagoons]], [[marches]] and [[mudflats]] of the tropical and subtropical latitudes.
Mangrove systems are in continuous jeopardy, facing threats from human interventions. Human interference in mangrove forests has caused the system to shrink in an alarming way and at a faster rate than inland tropical forests and [[coral reefs]].<ref name=Duke>{{cite journal|last=Duke|first=N.C|coauthors=Meynecke, J.O; Dittman, S.;Ellison, A.M.;Anger, K.;Berger,U.;Cannicci,S;Diele, K.;Ewel, K.C.;Field, C.D.; Koedam, N.; Lee S.Y.; Marchand, C.;Nordhaus, I;Dahdouh-Guebas, F.|title=A World Without Mangroves?|journal=Science|date=July 2007|volume=317|issue=5834|pages=41–42|doi=10.1126/science.317.5834.41b}}</ref> It is predicted that small rise in sea level would be the greatest threat to the existing mangroves.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gilman, E., Ellison, J., Duke, N.C.,Field, C.|title=Threats to mangroves from climate change and adaptation options|year=2008|volume=89|issue=2|pages=237–250|doi=10.1016/j.aquabot.2007.12.009,}}</ref> The mangrove forests are likely to be totally lost in the next 100 years, if current trends continues.<ref name=Duke/> A healthy mangrove [[ecosystem]] provides vast benefits to the adjoining systems and mankind. Mangroves and associated soils can sequester 22.8 million metric tons of carbon each year, which is 11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans <ref>{{cite journal|last=Jennerrjahn, T.C., Ittekot, V.,|title=Relevance of mangroves for the production and deposition of organic matter along tropical continental margins|journal=Naturwissenschaften|date=January 2002|volume=89|pages=23–30|pmid=12008969|bibcode = 2002NW.....89...23J |doi = 10.1007/s00114-001-0283-x }}</ref> and provides more than 10% of essential organic carbon to the global oceans.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dittmar, T., Hertkorn, N., Kattner, G., Lara, R.J.|title=Mangroves, a major source of dissolved organic carbon to the oceans|journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles|year=2006|volume=20|pages=7|doi=10.1029/2005GB002570|bibcode = 2006GBioC..20.1012D }}</ref>[[Carbon sequestration]] potential of mangroves is 50 times greater than many other tropical forests. This is due to the high levels of below ground [[biomass]] and also the considerable storage of organic carbon in mangrove sediment soils. Failing to preserve mangrove forests may cause considerable carbon emissions and thus accelerate global warming.<ref>{{cite book|last=Spalding, M., Kainuma, M., Collins, M.,|title=World atlas of mangroves|year=2010|pages=319|url=http://www.glomis.com/Earthscan.pdf}}</ref> The restoration of mangroves can be an ideal and natural counter-measure to global warming, and mangroves also play a key role in environmental security. This consists of mitigating the effects of [[tsunami]], [[cyclones]], floods and green house gas. In general, every ecosystem provides life supporting functions as well as other valuable services, many of which are interlaced with human welfare <ref>{{cite journal|last=Farley, J., Batker, D., Del la Torre, I., Hudspeth, T.,|title=Conserving Mangrove Ecosystems in the Philippines: Transcending Disciplinary and Institutional Borders|date=September 2009|doi=10.1007/s00267-009-9379-4|bibcode = 2010EnMan..45...39F }}</ref> Mangroves have a medicinal value as well. Coastal ecosystems such as mangroves are as a potential site for new drugs.<ref name=Regunathan>{{cite journal|last=Regunathan, C., Kitto, M.R.,|title=Drugs from the indian seas-- More Expectations|journal=Current Science|year=2009|volume=97|pages=1705–1706}}</ref> Drug research groups have pointed out that mangroves possess an untapped source of new medicines and in the future this ecosystem will be the new frontiers for drug discoveries.<ref name=Regunathan/>

===Effects of deforestation in the African Highlands===
[[Image:Ethiopian highlands 01 mod.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The [[Ethiopian Highlands]]]]

Environmental changes such as deforestation could increase local temperatures in the highlands thus could enhance the vectorial capacity of the [[anopheles]].<ref name=Afrane>{{cite journal|last=Afrane|first=Y. A.|coauthors=Githeko, A.K.; Yan, G.|title=The ecology of Anopheles mosquitoes under climate change: case studies from the effects of deforestation in East African highlands|date=February 2012|volume=1249|pages=204–210|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06432.x|bibcode = 2012NYASA1249..204A }}</ref> [[Anopheles]] mosquitos are responsible for the transmission of a number of diseases in the world, such as, [[malaria]], [[lymphatic filariasis]] and viruses that can cause such ailments like [[O'nyong'nyong virus]].<ref name=Afrane/>
Environmental changes, [[climate variability]], and climate change are such factors that could affect biology and ecology of Anophelse [[vector (epidemiology)|vectors]] and their [[disease transmission]] potential.<ref name=Afrane/> Climate change is expected to lead to latitudinal and altitudinal temperature increases. Global warming projections indicate that the best estimate of surface air warming for a “high scenario” is 4 C, with a likely range of 2.4-6.4 C by 2100.<ref>{{cite book|title=Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability.|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press.|location=Cambridge|url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_wg2_report_impacts_adaptation_and_vulnerability.htm|author=IPCC}}</ref>
A temperature increase of this size would alter the biology and the ecology of many mosquito vectors and the dynamics of the diseases they transmit such as Malaria. Arthropods critically depend on ambient temperature for survival and development,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lindsay, S.W. & Birley, M.H.|title=Climate change and malaria transmission.|journal=Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol.|year=1996|volume=90|pages=573–588|pmid=9039269|issue=6}}</ref> and their distribution range is limited by the temperature. Climate warming or any factor that alters the [[microclimate]] conditions of Anopheles mosquitos (e.g., Deforestation) in the highlands may facilitate the persistence of the mosquito population.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Afrane, Y.A., Zhou, G., Lawson B.W.|journal=The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene|date=October 2007|volume=7|pages=660–666|pmid=17978067|issue=4|title=Life-table analysis of Anopheles arabiensis in western Kenya highlands: effects of land covers on larval and adult survivorship.}}</ref> Climate warming can mediate mosquito [[physiology]] and [[metabolic rate]] because metabolic rate increases exponentially rather than linearly with temperature [[ectotherms]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gillooly, J.F., Brown, J.H., West, G.B.,Savage, V.M.,Charnov, E.L.|journal=Science Magazine|date=September 2001|volume=293|pages=2248–2251|doi=10.1126/science.1061967|bibcode = 2001Sci...293.2248G|pmid=11567137}}</ref> Anopheles mosquitoes in highland areas are to experience a larger shift in their metabolic rate due to the climate change. This climate change is due to the deforestation in the highland areas where these mosquitos dwell. When temperature rises, the [[larvae]] take a shorter time to mature <ref>{{cite journal|last=Munga, S., Minakawa, N., Zhou, G., Githenko, A.K., Yan, G.|title=Survivorship of Immature Stages of Anopheles gambiae s.l. (Diptera: Culicidae) in Natural Habitats in Western Kenya Highlands|journal=Journal of Medical Entomology|date=September 2007|volume=44|pages=758–764|doi=10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[758:SOISOA]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> and, consequently, there is a greater capacity to produce more offspring. Microclimatic changes in human homes caused by the effects of deforestation can also significantly shorten the duration of the mosquitoes' gonotrophic cycle by 1.7 days (4.6 vs 2.9 days)<ref>{{cite journal|last=Afrane, Y.A., Lawson, B.W., Githeko, A.K., Yan. G.|title=Effects of microclimatic changes caused by land use and land cover on duration of gonotrophic cycles of Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) in western Kenya highlands.|journal=Journal of Medical Entomology|year=2005|volume=42|pages=974–980|doi=10.1603/0022-2585(2005)042[0974:EOMCCB]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> The gonotrophic cycle is the period between the taking of a blood meal by a mosquito, including the digestion of the blood meal, until [[oviposition]] or egg laying.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Santos, R.L., Forattini, O.P., Burattini, M.N.|title=Laboratory and field observations on duration of gonotrophic cycle of Anopheles albitarsis s.l. (Diptera: Culicidae) in southeastern Brazil.|journal=Journal of Medical Entomology|date=November 2002|volume=39|pages=926–930|pmid=12495194|issue=6}}</ref> The decrease of the gonotrophic cycles implies an increase of the biting frequency from an average of once every five days to once every three days. In turn this could potentially lead to an increase in malaria
transmission when infected humans are available.

Deforestation for the purpose of logging and self-subsistence agriculture is a serious problem in the tropical regions of Africa. For Example, [[Malava forest]], a tropical rainforest in kakamega district, [[Kenya]], shrank from 150 km2 in 1965 to 86 km2 in 1997.In East African highlands, 2.9 million hectares of forest were cleared between 1981 and 1990, representing an 8% reduction in forest cover in one decade.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lindblade, K.A., Walker, E.D., Onapa, A.W.,Katungu, J., Wilson, M.L.|title=Land use change alters malaria transmission parameters by modifying temperature in a highland area of Uganda.|journal=Tropical Medicine & International Health|date=April 2000|volume=5|pages=263–274|pmid=10810021|issue=4}}</ref> Land use and land cover changes may modify the temperature and relative humidity of malaria vector habitats in the highlands. For instance, deforestation in Cameroon caused the introduction of [[Anopheles gambiae|A. gambiae]] into the habitat that was previously dominated by A. moucheti.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Manga, L., Toto, J.C., Carnevale, P.|title=Malaria vectors and transmission in an area deforested for a new international airport in southern Cameroon.|journal=Societes Belges Medicine Tropicale|date=March 1995|volume=75|pages=43–49|pmid=7794062|issue=1}}</ref>[[Image:Forest fruits from Barro Colorado.png|150px|thumbnail|right|[[Biodiversity]]]]

===Biodiversity===
[[Deforestation]] is directly linked with a decrease in plant [[biodiversity]].<ref name=muhammad>{{cite journal|last=Muhammad|first=Ashraf|coauthors=Hussain, M.; Ahmad, M.S.A; Al-Quariny, F.; Hameed, M.|title=Strategies for conservation of endangered ecosystems|journal=Pakistan Journal of Botany|date=May 2012|volume=44|issue=Special Issue|pages=1–6|url=http://www.pakbs.org/pjbot/PDFs/44(SI2)/01.pdf|accessdate=25 November 2012}}</ref> This decrease in biodiversity has several implications for human health. One such implication is the loss of [[herbalism|medicinal plants]]. The use of plants for medicinal purposes is extensive, with ~70 to 80% of individuals worldwide relying solely on plant-based medicine as their primary source of healthcare.<ref name=hamilton>{{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Alan|title=Plant Conservation: An Ecosystem Approach|year=2006|publisher=Earthscan|location=London|isbn=9781844070831|pages=37–39|chapter=2}}</ref> This dependency on plants for medicinal purposes is especially rife in [[developing country|developing countries]] that only consume 15% of manufactured pharmaceutical drugs, many of which are fake.<ref name=hamilton /> Local knowledge surrounding medicinal plants is useful for screening for new herbal medicines that may be useful for treating disease.<ref name=mirsanjari>{{cite journal|last=Mirsanjari|first=Mir Mehrdad|coauthors=Mirsanjari, Mitra.|title=The role of biodiversity for sustainable environment|journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development|date=May 2012|volume=4|issue=3|pages=71–86|url=http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2054975|accessdate=25 November 2012}}</ref> Villages and communities which reside continually in a single geographic area over time, create, transmit and apply widespread information surrounding the medicinal resources in the area.<ref name=mirsanjari/> Formal scientific methods have been useful in identifying the active ingredients used in [[ethnopharmacy]] and applying them to modern medicines. However, it is important that medicinal resources are managed appropriately as they become globally traded in order to prevent [[endangered species|species endangerment]].<ref name=mirsanjari/>

===Extinction of indigenous groups===
Deforestation is also a primary cause of dislocation and in some cases, extinction of indigenous people.<ref name=Laurance>{{cite journal|last=Laurance|first=William F|title=Reflections on the tropical deforestation crisis|journal=Biological Conservation|date=1 December 1999|volume=91|issue=2-3|pages=109–117|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(99)00088-9}}</ref> The Malaysian state [[Sarawak]] is an example where rampant deforestation has overrun many [[Dayak people|Dayak]] groups.<ref name= Laurance/> The indigenous Sarawakians relied on shifting agriculture, hunting and gathering in order to sustain their relatively low population density.<ref name=Kaur>{{cite journal|last=Kaur|first=Amarjit|title=A History of Forestry in Sarawak|journal=Modern Asian Studies|date=February 1998|volume=32|issue=1|pages=117–147|doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003011}}</ref> With the advent of modern logging technology the Sarawak forests entered 'mainstream' economic development.<ref name= Laurance/> This has led to massive forced evacuations and relocation of the Dayak people causing a loss of their traditions and culture.<ref name=Goroh>{{cite web|last=Goroh|first=Eleanor|title=Update 2011-Malaysia|url=http://www.iwgia.org/regions/asia/malaysia/877-update-2011-malaysia|publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs|accessdate=26 November 2012}}</ref>

===Mountain pine beetle, forest ecosystems and forest fires===
[[Image:Dendroctonus ponderosae.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Adult mountain pine beetle]]

Climate change and the associated changing weather patterns occurring world-wide have a direct effect on biology, population ecology, and the population of eruptive insects, such as the [[mountain pine beetle]] (MPB). This is because temperature is a factor which determines insect development and population success.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sambaraju|first=K. R.|coauthors=, A. L., Zhu, J., Stahl, K., Moore, R. D., Aukema, B. H.|title=Climate change could alter the distribution of mountain pine beetle outbreaks in western Canada|journal=Ecography|year=2012|volume=35|issue=3|pages=211–223|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0587.2011.06847.x}}</ref> [[Mountain Pine Beetle]] are a species native to Western [[North America]].<ref name=pinebeetle>{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, changing health|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Los Angeles, California|pages=138–160|isbn=0520269098|author=Epstein, P.;Ferber, D.}}</ref> Prior to climatic and temperature changes, the mountain pine beetle predominately lived and attacked [[lodgepole pine|lodgepole]] and [[ponderosa Pine|ponderosa]] pine trees at lower elevations, as the higher elevation [[Rocky Mountains]] and [[Cascade Range|Cascades]] were too cold for their survival.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kurz|first=W.|title=Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v452/n7190/abs/nature06777.html.|publisher=Nature|accessdate=November 23, 2012}}</ref> Under normal seasonal freezing weather conditions in the lower elevations, the forest ecosystems that pine beetles inhabit are kept in a balance by factors such as tree defense mechanisms, beetle defense mechanisms, and freezing temperatures. It is a simple relationship between a [[host (biology)|host]] (the forest), an [[Biological agent|agent]] (the beetle) and the [[Natural environment|environment]] (the weather & temperature).<ref name=pinebeetle/> However, as climate change causes mountain areas to become warmer and drier, pine beetles have more power to infest and destroy the forest ecosystems, such as the whitebark pine forests of the Rockies.<ref name=pinebeetle/> This is a forest so important to forest ecosystems that it is called the “rooftop of the rockies”. Climate change has led to a threatening pine beetle [[pandemic]], causing them to spread far beyond their native habitat. This leads to [[ecosystem]] changes, [[forest fires]], [[floods]] and hazards to human [[health]].<ref name=pinebeetle/>

The whitebark pine ecosystem in these high elevations plays many essential roles, providing support to plant and animal life.<ref name=pinebeetle/> They provide food for [[grizzly bears]] and [[squirrels]], as well as shelter and breeding grounds for [[elk]] and [[deer]]; protects [[Drainage divide|watersheds]] by sending water to parched foothills and plains; serves as a reservoir by dispensing supplies of water from melted snowpacks that are trapped beneath the shaded areas; and creates new soil which allows for growth of other trees and plant species.<ref name=pinebeetle/> Without these pines, animals do not have adequate food, water, or shelter, and the reproductive life cycle, as well as quality of life, is affected as a consequence.<ref name=pinebeetle/> Normally, the pine beetle cannot survive in these frigid temperatures and high elevation of the Rocky Mountains.<ref name=pinebeetle/> However, warmer temperatures means that the pine beetle can now survive and attack these forests, as it no longer is cold enough to freeze and kill the beetle at such elevations.<ref name=pinebeetle/> Increased temperatures also allow the pine beetle to increase their life cycle by 100%: it only takes a single year instead of two for the pine beetle to develop. As the Rockies have not adapted to deal with pine beetle [[infestations]], they lack the defenses to fight the beetles.<ref name=pinebeetle/> Warmer [[weather patterns]], [[drought]], and beetle defense mechanisms together dries out [[sap]] in [[pine trees]], which is the main mechanism of defense that trees have against the beetle, as it drowns the beetles and their eggs.<ref name=pinebeetle/> This makes it easier for the beetle to infest and release chemicals into the tree, luring other beetles in an attempt to overcome the weakened defense system of the pine tree. As a consequence, the host (forest) becomes more vulnerable to the disease-causing agent (the beetle).<ref name=pinebeetle/>

The whitebark forests of the Rockies are not the only forests that have been affected by the mountain pine beetle. Due to temperature changes and wind patterns, the pine beetle has now spread through the [[Continental Divide]] of the Rockies and has invaded the fragile [[boreal forest]]s of [[Alberta]], known as the “lungs of the Earth”.<ref name=pinebeetle/> These forests are imperative for producing [[oxygen]] through [[photosynthesis]] and removing [[carbon]] in the [[atmosphere]]. But as the forests become infested and die, [[carbon dioxide]] is released into the environment, and contributes even more to a warming climate. Ecosystems and humans rely on the supply of oxygen in the environment, and threats to this boreal forest results in severe consequences to our planet and human health.<ref name=pinebeetle/> In a forest ravaged by pine beetle, the dead logs and kindle which can easily be ignited by [[lightning]]. [[Forest fires]] present dangers to the environment, human health and the [[economy]].<ref name=pinebeetle/> They are detrimental to [[air quality]] and [[vegetation]], releasing [[toxic]] and [[carcinogenic]] compounds as they burn.<ref name=pinebeetle/> Due to human induced [[deforestation]] and climate change, along with the pine beetle pandemic, the strength of forest ecosystems decrease. The infestations and resulting [[diseases]] can indirectly, but seriously, effect human health. As droughts and temperature increases continue, so does the frequency of devastating forest fires, [[insect]] infestations, forest diebacks, [[acid rain]], habitat loss, animal endangerment and threats to safe drinking water.<ref name=pinebeetle/>

===Smoke from wildfires===
[[File:Wildfire3.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|alt=Flat expanse of brown grasses and some green trees with black and some gray smoke and visible flames in the distance.|A surface fire in the western desert of [[Utah]], U.S.]]

[[Climate change]] increases [[wildfire]] potential and activity.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Liu|first=Y.|coauthors=Stanturf, J., Goodrick, S.|title=Trends in global wildfire potential in a changing climate|journal=Forest and Ecology Management|date=February 2010|volume=259|issue=4|pages=685–697|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.002|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112709006148#}}</ref> [[Climate change]] leads to a warmer ground temperature and its effects include: earlier snowmelt dates, drier than expected [[vegetation]], increased number of potential fire days, increased occurrence of summer [[droughts]], and a prolonged [[dry season]].<ref name=westerling>{{cite journal|last=Westerling, A.|coauthors=Hidalgo, H., Cayan, D., Swetnam, T.|title=Warming and earlier spring increase Western U.S. Forest Wildfire Activity|journal=Science|date=August 2006|volume=313|issue=5789|pages=940–943|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/313/5789/940.short|doi=10.1126/science.1128834|pmid=16825536}}</ref>

Warming [[spring (season)|spring]] and [[summer]] temperatures increase [[flammability]] of materials that make up the forest floors.<ref name=westerling/> Warmer temperatures cause dehydration of these materials, which prevents [[rain]] from soaking up and dampening fires. Furthermore, [[pollution]] from wildfires can exacerbate climate change by releasing atmospheric [[aerosol]]s, which modify [[cloud]] and [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] patterns .

Wood smoke from wildfires produces [[particulate matter]] that has damaging effects to human health.<ref name=naeher>{{cite journal|last=Naeher, L.|coauthors=Brauer, M., Lipsett, M., Zelikoff, Smith, J.J., Simpson, C., Koenig, J.,|title=Woodsmoke health effects: A review|journal=Inhalation Toxicology|date=January 2007|volume=19|issue=1|pages=67–106|doi=10.1080/08958370600985875|url=http://informahealthcare.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08958370600985875}}</ref> The primary pollutants in wood smoke are [[carbon monoxide]] and [[nitric oxide]].<ref name=westerling/> Through the destruction of [[forests]] and human-designed [[infrastructure]], [[wildfire]] smoke releases other toxic and carcinogenic compounds, such as [[formaldehyde]] and [[hydrocarbon]]s.<ref name=epstein2>{{cite book|last=Epstein|first=Brian|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens our Health and What We Can Do About It|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|isbn=9780520272637|pages=138–160}}</ref> These pollutants damage human health by evading the [[mucociliary clearance]] system and depositing in the [[upper respiratory tract]], where they exert toxic effects.<ref name=westerling/> Research by Naeher and colleagues.<ref name=naeher/> found that physician visits for respiratory diseases increased by 45-80% during wildfire activity in urban British Columbia.

The health effects of wildfire smoke exposure include: exacerbations and development of respiratory illness such as [[asthma]] and [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder]]; increased risk of [[lung cancer]], [[mesothelioma]] and [[tuberculosis]]; increased airway hyper-responsiveness; changes in levels of inflammatory mediators and coafulation factors; and [[respiratory tract infection]] .<ref name=naeher/> It may also have intrauterine effects on fetal development, resulting in [[low birth weight]] newborns.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Holstius|first=D.M.|coauthors=Reid, C. E., Jesdale, B. M., Morello-Frosch, R.|title=Birth Weight following Pregnancy during the 2003 Southern California Wildfires|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|date=September 2012|volume=120|issue=9|pages=1340–1345|doi=10.129|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3440113/pdf/ehp.1104a515.pdf|pmc=3440113}}</ref> Because wildfire smoke travels and is often not isolated to a single geographic region, the health effects are widespread among populations.<ref name=epstein2/>
The suppression of wild fires also takes up a large amount of a country’s [[gross domestic product]] which directly affects the country’s economy.<ref name=ellison>{{cite journal|last=Ellison|first=A|coauthors=Evers, C., Moseley, C., Nielsen-Pincus, M.|title=Forest service spending on large wildfires in the West|journal=Ecosystem Workforce Program|year=2012|volume=41|pages=1–16|url=http://ewp.uoregon.edu/sites/ewp.uoregon.edu/files/WP_41.pdf}}</ref> In the United States, it was reported that approximately $6 million was spent between 2004-2008 to suppress wildfires in the country.<ref name=ellison/>

==Displacement/migration==
Climate change causes displacement of people in several ways, the most obvious—and dramatic—being through the increased number and severity of weather-related disasters which destroy homes and habitats causing people to seek shelter or livelihoods elsewhere. Slow onset phenomena, including effects of climate change such as [[desertification]] and [[rising sea levels]] gradually erode livelihoods and force communities to abandon traditional homelands for more accommodating environments. This is currently happening in areas of Africa’s [[Sahel]], the semi-arid belt that spans the continent just below its northern deserts. Deteriorating environments triggered by climate change can also lead to increased conflict over resources which in turn can displace people.<ref>http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5888</ref>

Extreme environmental events are increasingly recognized as a key driver of migration across the world. According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, more than 42 million people were displaced in Asia and the Pacific during 2010 and 2011, more than twice the population of Sri Lanka. This figure includes those displaced by storms, floods, and heat and cold waves. Still others were displaced drought and sea-level rise. Most of those compelled to leave their homes eventually returned when conditions improved, but an undetermined number became migrants, usually within their country, but also across national borders.<ref name=bogumil>Bogumil Terminski, Environmentally-Induced Displacement. Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges, CEDEM, Université de Liège, 2012</ref>

Asia and the Pacific is the global area most prone to natural disasters, both in terms of the absolute number of disasters and of populations affected. It is highly exposed to climate impacts, and is home to highly vulnerable population groups, who are disproportionately poor and marginalized. A recent Asian Development Bank report highlights “environmental hot spots” that are particular risk of flooding, [[cyclones]], [[typhoons]], and water stress.<ref name="beta">[http://beta.adb.org/sites/default/files/pub/2012/addressing-climate-change-migration.pdf Addressing Climate Change in Asia and the Pacific, 2012]</ref>

To reduce migration compelled by worsening environmental conditions, and to strengthen resilience of at-risk communities, governments should adopt polices and commit financing to social protection, livelihoods development, basic urban infrastructure
development, and disaster risk management. Though every effort should be made to ensure that people can stay where they live, it is also important to recognize that migration can also be a way for people to cope with environmental changes. If properly managed, and efforts made to protect the rights of migrants, migration can provide substantial benefits to both origin and destination areas, as well as to the migrants themselves. However, migrants – particularly low-skilled ones – are among the most vulnerable people in society and are often denied basic protections and access to services.<ref name="beta" />

The links between the gradual environmental degradation of climate change and displacement are complex: as the decision to migrate is taken at the household level, it is difficult to measure the respective influence of climate change in these decisions with regard to other influencing factors, such as [[poverty]], [[population growth]] or [[employment]] options.<ref name=bogumil/> This situates the debate on [[environmental migrant|environmental migration]] in a highly contested field: the use of the term 'environmental refugee', although commonly used in some contexts, is disrecommended by agencies such as the [[UNHCR]] who argue that the term 'refugee' has a strict legal definition which does not apply to environmental migrants.<ref name="UNHCR on environmental migration terminology">{{cite web|last=Black|first=Richard|title=Environmental refugees: myth or reality?|url=http://www.unhcr.org/research/RESEARCH/3ae6a0d00.pdf|publisher=UNHCR}}</ref> Neither the [[UN Framework Convention on Climate Change]] nor the [[Kyoto Protocol]], an international agreement on climate change, includes any provisions concerning specific assistance or protection for those who will be directly affected by climate change.<ref>http://www.brookings.edu/speeches/2007/1214_climate_change_ferris.aspx</ref>

==See also==
*[[Amazon rain forest]]
*[[Carbon cycle]]
*[[Atmospheric carbon cycle]]
*[[Carbon sink]]
*[[Biodiversity]]
*[[Deforestation]]
*[[Food security]]
*[[Environmental Security and Peace]]
*[[Long-term effects of global warming]]
*[[Sustainable Agriculture]]
*[[Climate change]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Effects of global warming]]
*[[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]
*[[Arctic methane release]]
*[[Alpine plant]]
*[[:Category:Alpine flora|Alpine flora]]
*[[International Permafrost Association]]
*[[Permafrost Young Researchers Network]]
*[[Permafrost carbon cycle]]

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

==Further reading==
* [http://beta.adb.org/sites/default/files/pub/2012/addressing-climate-change-migration.pdf Addressing Climate Change in Asia & the Pacific 2012]
* [http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_synthesis_report.htm Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, 4th Assessment Report, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]
* [http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/independent_reviews/stern_review_economics_climate_change/stern_review_report.cfm Report on the Economics of Climate Change (2006), Stern Review]
* [http://ghfgeneva.org/Portals/0/pdfs/human_impact_report.pdf Human Impact Report: The Anatomy of a Silent Crisis (2009), Global Humanitarian Forum]
* [http://www.ghf-geneva.org/Portals/0/pdfs/KeyPointsonClimateJusticeTextWeb.pdf Key Points on Climate Justice: Working Paper of the Global Humanitarian Forum]
*{{cite news | url=http://www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/policy/climate_change/downloads/research_what_happened_to_seasons.pdf | title=What Happened to the Seasons? | date= | accessdate= | work=[[Oxfam]] Research Report}}
* [http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf Human Development Report 2007/2008, United Nations Development Programme]
* [http://www.maplecroft.com/Climate_change_info.php Maplecroft Climate Change Risk Report 2009/2010]
*{{cite journal|last=Woodward|first=A.|year=1995|title=Doctoring the planet: health effects of global change*|journal=Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine|volume=25|issue=1|pages=46–53|issn=00048291|doi=10.1111/j.1445-5994.1995.tb00579.x|pmid=7786246}}
* [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/sv/news/migration_and_climate_change_a_unesco_publication_on_one_of_the_greatest_challenges_facing_our_time/ UNESCO (2011) 'Migration and Climate Change']
* [http://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/publications/working-papers/wp-10-79/ Piguet, E., Pécoud, A. and de Guchteneire, P. (2010) Migration and Climate Change: an Overview]

==External links==
* [http://www.ghf-ge.org/ Global Humanitarian Forum]
* [http://www.timeforclimatejustice.org/ Tck Tck Tck Time for Climate Justice campaign]
* [http://www.unep.org/climatechange/ United Nations Environment Programme and climate change]
* [http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/climatechange/index.htm Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights human rights and climate change]
* [http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e4a5096.html Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees climate change]
* [http://www.careclimatechange.org/ Care International Climate Change Information Centre]
* [http://www.climatecentre.org/index.php?page=1 Red Cross/Red Crescent Climate Centre]
* [http://beta.worldbank.org/climatechange/ World Bank and Climate Change]
* [http://www.wmo.int/pages/themes/climate/index_en.php World Meteorological Organization and climate]
* [http://www.who.int/globalchange/climate/en/ Climate change and human health] on [[World Health Organization]]
* [http://www.international-alert.org/climate_change/index.php International Alert climate change and violent conflict]
* [http://www.unisdr.org/eng/risk-reduction/climate-change/climate-change.html International Strategy for Disaster Reduction disaster risk reduction and climate change]
* [http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/inventory/database/statistic.html National and Regional Fire Databases]
* [http://www.iawfonline.org/ International Association of Wildland Fire]
* [http://ulmo.ucmerced.edu/w_FireData.html/ Anthony. L . Westerling's Climate Links]
* [http://www.ipcc.ch/Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]
* [http://wildfireworld.org/ Wildfire World: International Association of Wildland Fire]
* [http://johncarlosbaez.wordpress.com/2011/12/19/melting-permafrost-part-3/ Azimuth]

[[Category:Effects of global warming]]
[[Category:Health]]

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