formulasearchengine - User contributions [en]

Hydrogen cycle

2014-10-11T15:02:17Z

24.114.77.79:

NEW YORK - Jay Victorino was standing outside his mom's condo when he was grabbed by police, and he says if she hadn't come downstairs to determine him he would've been arrested on a trespassing charge. JLL ranked high actual property investment advisor in Asia Pacific Newest information from Actual Capital Analytics (RCA) reveals real property advisory firm advised on essentially the most deals by value in the area in 2013 JLL named Greatest Performing Property Brand for second yr operating JLL has been named Greatest Performing Property Brand on the twelfth Annual MPF Awards for Management Excellence. Through its wholly-ownded subsidiary, Frasers Centrepoint Limited ("FCL"), Fraser and Neave, Limited ("F&N") has a world portfolio of high quality residential properties, serviced residences, actual property and fund management, and business properties which embody retail malls, workplaces and enterprise parks. FCL is considered one of Singapore's prime three property corporations with complete property of over $8 billion. Long tenure loans pose dangers to each lenders and borrowers. The lower preliminary month-to-month repayments, made possible by lengthy mortgage tenures and the current low rates of interest, might lead debtors to over-estimate their capacity to service the loans, and take a much bigger loan than they can really afford. A rising property market could give false confidence to each borrowers and lenders that ought to there be problem in servicing the mortgage they can at all times promote the property at a higher worth. In reality, long tenure loans impose a larger debt repayment burden on debtors as interest accumulates over an extended interval. Its aroma acts as a stimulant. It is carminative, which means it helps in relieving from gas. It is used to deal with many stomach-associated issues. This herbal medication is used in opposition to nausea, dyspepsia, flatulence, catarrh, rheumatism, and enteritis. It additionally has tonic and antibacterial properties. Due to these two properties it's utilized in veterinary and homeopathic drugs. Its root can be utilized for treating fungal infections and in pain relief of joints and muscular tissues. A caveat^ shall be lodged by your lawyer with the Singapore Land Authority against the property. An LO is buy a house in singapore, [http://thirty0.com/spartan/groups/new-launch-property-in-singapore/ visit the up coming website], proper offer of house loan from the financial institution, setting out the phrases and circumstances governing the home loan provided therein. ^ A caveat serves as a public discover that the particular person lodging it's claiming an curiosity within the property, and it will lapse 5 years from the date of lodgement, unless it is discharged or renewed. Meet your Lawyer Freehold Condominium at Bukit Timah, close to to approaching King Albert Park MRT. Total of 536 items from 1BR to 4BR, with 162 luxurious brand new and improved flats accessible for sale. The property tax is calculated by multiplying the Annual Worth (AV) of the property with the prevailing property tax price Property Tax charges But recently they have been transferring up market, brokers say. The present in-vogue building among the Chinese is Central Park's One57, a brand new skyscraper designed by Pritzker Prize-profitable French architect Christian de Portzamparc, where they will spend $18.85 million for a three-bedroom or $fifty five million for an condo taking over the entire 81st ground. The constructing comes with all the amenities of a five-star resort. Shanghai businessman Wang Jiguang has already picked up two homes in one other major Australian metropolis, Melbourne, and one residence in Sydney. "My youngster is going to study overseas, and we're just getting ready some abroad assets for our little one, which will likely be much less risky," Wang stated in a phone interview from Shanghai. Uses in Hair and Skin Care To reply that query, let us take a look at the house possession rate for Singaporeans and Singapore Residents. Based mostly on data from the department of statistics, it may be seen that the home ownership rate in 2012 is 90.1%. In other phrases, 9 out of 10 Singaporeans and Singapore residents own at the least one property (i.e. their dwelling). Only one out of 10 don't presently own their house and might probably nonetheless purchase properties with out a lot restrictions.

Arraignment

2013-12-24T05:55:46Z

24.114.77.172:

Opulence. Maybe there's something in the air of Paris that inspires it. There's the proliferation of palais (petit or grand) for designers to show their collections in, the galleries filled with florid, lurid art, and the haute couture, of course, opulence cubed and then wrapped in duchesse satin for good measure. They all do something to designers, no matter how minimally minded. It's certainly done something to Marc Jacobs. Compare and contrast the first Louis Vuitton collection he presented oh-so-quietly 16 years ago with the ball-busting extravaganza unveiled last Wednesday, part �Turn Back Time� video, part Paul Verhoeven's Showgirls 
It was an indulgent farewell to a house that has helped redefine the meaning of luxury goods in the 21st century. Indulgent for Jacobs, but also for the audience, a funereal feast for the eyes, Jacobs' all-black swansong. The Stephen Jones headdresses were inspired by Ziegfeld Follies and Cher's 1986 Oscars outfit 
Says it all 
Jacobs declared that the collection was obsessed with �pure adornment�, reasoning that �connecting with something on a superficial level is as honest as connecting with it on an intellectual level�. That's an interesting [http://Www.tumblr.com/tagged/conceit conceit]. Contemporary fashion, like contemporary art, tends to be overthoug 

If not by designers, then certainly by critics. After all, we have to justify our presence there. And the Air Miles we rack .
Marco Zanini also showed his final collection for the house of Rochas. He's moving to Schiaparelli. Like Jacobs, he was obsessed with surface, with dumb, straightforward beauty. His was sugary sweet, in pastels that made your teeth ache, dedicated to Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menager .
Banish thoughts of tormented southern belles. Zanini focused on the crystalline beauty of said ornaments, bonding devor� velvet to organza and freckling iridescent fabrics with Swarovski g 

Maria Grazia Chiuri and Pier Paolo Piccioli took a precious approach, too. Their Valentino collection was inspired by the Rome Opera, apparently. In actual fact, it was all about the heavily embellished surfaces of lace and tulle. Lawn shirts seemed [http://search.un.org/search?ie=utf8&site=un_org&output=xml_no_dtd&client=UN_Website_en&num=10&lr=lang_en&proxystylesheet=UN_Website_en&oe=utf8&q=included+purely&Submit=Go included purely] as foil for all that decoration, a palette clean 

It would have made it easier to enjoy Hedi Slimane's latest Saint Laurent collection if you could take it at face value. Look! Sequinned lips! Flames! Lurex pop-socks! Removed from the heritage of Saint Laurent, it had a pop, pap appeal. If you stopped looking for a hidden depth, the soul-searching that Yves Saint Laurent made an intrinsic part of his fashion, Slimane ticked bo 

Girls who want to look like that will love to dress in t s.
Karl Lagerfeld has always been about surface. His toying with the hallmarks of Chanel - tweeds, camellias, pearls, chains, those two-tone shoes - has always been about ironic appropriation, post-modern reinterpretation. It's the fashion equivalent of Jeff Ko 

He showed his latest Chanel collection in an art gallery. At least, it was on the surface. It was all fake, only the clothes were real. And they were pure Chanel, the art-house backdrop just that. I kept thinking of something Dinos Chapman once said to me: �I think that the art world and the high-end fashion world� are the same peop .�

People wanted to buy the Chanel works of art as surely as they wanted to buy the Chanel clothes. They both became post-modern commod ies.
That's looking below the surface, though, behind the opulence of Chanel's specially woven, artfully unravelling tweeds that resembled rag-rugs, the canvas bags with a 2.55 fa�ade painted on the front, the graffitied art-student backpacks. They were just great, covetable fashion, brilliant pro s.

That brings us, inevitably, to Phoebe Philo. She's known for great products - photography is banned in the C�line showroom for fear of rampant copying. And rightfully so. Still, that oft-imitated C�line hallmark is an ascetic aesthetic. Philo is the last designer one imagines inclined to opu e.

But her riotously messy spring C�line collection felt fresh and energetic, pleated skirts bouncing below an elongated torso, fringe swaying on latticed leather bags, mashed-up metal formed into enamelled bracelets and els.
Couture, of course, breeds opulence. Riccardo Tisci halted his made-to-measure line this year, but the handicraft of couture infected his spring collection, from the crystal-encrusted masks, to feather-embroidered bodices, to a series of sequinned, sinuous multi-pleat evening s.

Those were old-school opulent. For modern couture, and a contemporary opulence, fashion turns to Raf Simons. His last Dior haute-couture collection met mixed reviews, but has inspired many a designer. [http://www.pcs-systems.co.uk/Images/celinebag.aspx http://www.pcs-systems.co.uk/Images/celinebag.aspx] The throbbing mood of Africa that beat through the collections, albeit slightly hackneyed, can be traced to S ons.
This time, he pushed his aesthetic further still. It felt a collection in flux, sitting halfway between Dior past and Simons future, a cross-pollination. The inspiration was flowers, a theme at the very root of Dior. But the best summary was the least ostentatious: Simons' shirtdresses, twisted takes on the white cotton coats of workers corkscrewing around the body in a fascinating surface of complex s.

So, French fashion is all about surface. Where does that leave Rei Kawakubo and Junya Watanabe, or Hussein Chalayan? The visual is just a fragment of what they offer, thinking clothes for the thinking woman. Jacobs may be in love with �beauty for beauty's sake�, but this trio of talents begs for somethin more.
They all had a stellar, cerebral season: Watanabe creating an idiosyncratic ode to the spaghetti Western, Chalayan a paean to the windswept beach, while Kawakubo presented 23 non-outfits that challenged our perceptions of what fashion actually represents. She stated that she had no new ideas, so didn't create c es.

If only other designers could follow her lead and thin out th herd.
The surface of this deep-thinking threesome's clothing was universally impressive, but it's what lies beneath that really interests. Opulent intelligence? Their clothes beg dissection and discussion. To intellectualise a fashion show isn't automatically to over- intellectual it.

Ultimately, that's what fashion is about. Surface is all well and good. But you have to get someone inside the damn clothes for it to all make se.

It's ideological, as well as physical. At least, it is when it's really great.

Supremum

2013-12-15T00:54:44Z

24.114.67.133:

[[File:Single bubble cropped.jpg|right|thumb|Single-bubble sonoluminescence - A single, cavitating bubble.]]
[[File:Sonoluminescence of Synthetic Ordnance Gel.ogv|thumb|Video of synthetic wound cavity collapsing creating sonoluminescence.]]
[[Image:Sonoluminescence.jpg|right|thumb|Long exposure image of multi-bubble sonoluminescence created by a high-intensity [[Ultrasound|ultrasonic]] horn immersed in a beaker of liquid]]

'''Sonoluminescence''' is the emission of short bursts of [[light]] from [[Implosion (mechanical process)|imploding]] [[Liquid bubble|bubble]]s in a [[liquid]] when excited by [[sound]].

==History==
The sonoluminescence effect was first discovered at the [[University of Cologne]] in 1934 as a result of work on [[sonar]].{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} [[H. Frenzel]] and [[H. Schultes]] put an ultrasound [[transducer]] in a tank of [[photograph]]ic [[developer fluid]]. They hoped to speed up the development process. Instead, they noticed tiny dots on the film after developing and realized that the bubbles in the fluid were emitting light with the ultrasound turned on.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} It was too difficult to analyze the effect in early experiments because of the complex environment of a large number of short-lived bubbles. (This experiment is also ascribed to N. Marinesco and J.J. Trillat in 1933, which also credits them with independent discovery). This phenomenon is now referred to as multi-bubble sonoluminescence (MBSL).

In 1989 an experimental advance was introduced by [[Felipe Gaitan]] and [[Lawrence Crum]], who produced stable single-bubble sonoluminescence (SBSL).{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} In SBSL, a single bubble trapped in an acoustic standing wave emits a pulse of light with each compression of the bubble within the [[standing wave]]. This technique allowed a more [[system]]atic study of the [[phenomenon]], because it isolated the complex effects into one stable, predictable bubble. It was realized that the temperature inside the bubble was hot enough to melt [[steel]].{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} Interest in sonoluminescence was renewed when an inner [[temperature]] of such a bubble well above one million [[kelvin]]s was postulated.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} This temperature is thus far not conclusively proven; rather, recent experiments conducted by the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]] indicate temperatures around {{val|20000|ul=K}}.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}

==Properties==
Sonoluminescence can occur when a sound wave of sufficient intensity induces a gaseous cavity within a liquid to collapse quickly. This cavity may take the form of a pre-existing bubble, or may be generated through a process known as [[cavitation]]. Sonoluminescence in the laboratory can be made to be stable, so that a single bubble will expand and collapse over and over again in a periodic fashion, emitting a burst of light each time it collapses. For this to occur, a standing acoustic wave is set up within a liquid, and the bubble will sit at a pressure [[anti-node]] of the standing wave. The [[frequency|frequencies]] of [[resonance]] depend on the shape and size of the container in which the bubble is contained.

Some facts about sonoluminescence:
* The light flashes from the bubbles are extremely short—between 35 and a few hundred [[picosecond]]s long—with peak intensities of the order of 1–{{val|10|ul=mW}}.
* The bubbles are very small when they emit the light—about 1 [[micrometre]] in diameter—depending on the ambient fluid (e.g., [[water]]) and the gas content of the bubble (e.g., [[Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric air]]).
* Single-bubble sonoluminescence pulses can have very stable periods and positions. In fact, the frequency of light flashes can be more stable than the rated frequency stability of the oscillator making the sound waves driving them. However, the stability analyses of the bubble show that the bubble itself undergoes significant geometric instabilities, due to, for example, the [[Bjerknes forces]] and [[Rayleigh–Taylor instability|Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities]].
* The addition of a small amount of [[noble gas]] (such as [[helium]], [[argon]], or [[xenon]]) to the gas in the bubble increases the intensity of the emitted light.

Spectral measurements have given bubble temperatures in the range from {{val|2300|u=K}} to {{val|5100|u=K}}, the exact temperatures depending on experimental conditions including the composition of the liquid and gas.<ref>{{cite journal
| author = Didenko, Y.T.; McNamara, III, W.B.; Suslick, K.S.
| title = Effect of Noble Gases on Sonoluminescence Temperatures during Multibubble Cavitation
| journal = Physical Review Letters
| date = January 2000
| volume = 84
| pages = 777–780
| doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.777
| bibcode = 2000PhRvL..84..777D
| pmid = 11017370
| issue = 4
}}</ref> Detection of very high bubble temperatures by spectral methods is limited due to the opacity of liquids to short wavelength light characteristic of very high temperatures.

Writing in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', chemists [[David J. Flannigan]] and [[Kenneth S. Suslick]] describe a method of determining temperatures based on the formation of [[Plasma (physics)|plasmas]]. Using argon bubbles in [[sulfuric acid]], their data show the presence of ionized molecular oxygen O2+, [[sulfur monoxide]], and atomic argon populating high-energy excited states, which confirms a hypothesis that the bubbles have a hot plasma core.<ref>{{cite journal|author=David J. Flannigan and Kenneth S. Suslick|title=Plasma formation and temperature measurement during single-bubble cavitation|journal=Nature|volume=434|pages=52–55|year=2005|doi=10.1038/nature03361|pmid=15744295|issue=7029|bibcode = 2005Natur.434...52F }}</ref> The [[ionization]] and [[Excited state|excitation]] energy of [[Ozonide|dioxygenyl]] [[cations]], which they observed, is 18 [[electronvolt]]s. From this they conclude the core temperatures reach at least 20,000 Kelvin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.illinois.edu/news/05/0302bubbles.html |title=Temperature inside collapsing bubble four times that of sun | Archives | News Bureau | University of Illinois |publisher=News.illinois.edu |date=2005-02-03 |accessdate=2012-11-14}}</ref>

==Rayleigh–Plesset equation==
:{{main|Rayleigh-Plesset equation}}
The dynamics of the motion of the bubble is characterized to a first approximation by the Rayleigh-Plesset equation (named after [[John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|Lord Rayleigh]] and [[Milton S. Plesset|Milton Plesset]]):

:<math>R\ddot{R} + \frac{3}{2}\dot{R}^{2} = \frac{1}{\rho}\left(p_g - P_0 - P(t) - 4\mu\frac{\dot{R}}{R} - \frac{2\gamma}{R}\right)</math>

This is an approximate equation that is derived from the incompressible [[Navier-Stokes equations]] (written in [[spherical coordinate system]]) and describes the motion of the radius of the bubble ''R'' as a function of time ''t''. Here, ''μ'' is the [[viscosity]], ''p'' the [[pressure]], and ''γ'' the [[surface tension]]. The over-dots represent time derivatives. This equation, though approximate, has been shown to give good estimates on the motion of the bubble under the [[acoustics|acoustically]] driven field except during the final stages of collapse. Both simulation and experimental measurement show that during the critical final stages of collapse, the bubble wall velocity exceeds the speed of sound of the gas inside the bubble.<ref>Bradley P. Barber and Seth J. Putterman, "Light Scattering Measurements of the Repetitive Supersonic Implosion of a Sonoluminescing Bubble," Phys Rev Lett 69, 3839-3842 (1992)</ref> Thus a more detailed analysis of the bubble's motion is needed beyond Rayleigh-Plesset to explore the additional energy focusing that an internally formed shock wave might produce.

==Mechanism of phenomenon==
{{see also|Mechanism of sonoluminescence}}
The mechanism of the phenomenon of sonoluminescence remains unsettled. [[Hypothesis|Hypotheses]] include: hotspot, [[bremsstrahlung]] radiation, collision-induced radiation and [[corona discharge]]s, [[nonclassical light]], [[Quantum tunnelling|proton tunneling]], [[electrodynamic]] [[Jet (fluid)|jets]] and [[fractoluminescence|fractoluminescent jets]] (now largely discredited due to contrary experimental evidence).

[[Image:Sonoluminescence.png|center|600px|thumb|From left to right: apparition of bubble, slow expansion, quick and sudden contraction, emission of light]]

In 2002, M. Brenner, S. Hilgenfeldt, and D. Lohse published a 60-page review [http://prola.aps.org/abstract/RMP/v74/i2/p425_1?"Single bubble sonoluminescence" (''Reviews of Modern Physics'' 74, 425)] that contains a detailed explanation of the mechanism. An important factor is that the bubble contains mainly inert noble gas such as argon or xenon (air contains about 1% argon, and the amount dissolved in water is too great; for sonoluminescence to occur, the concentration must be reduced to 20–40% of its equilibrium value) and varying amounts of [[water vapor]]. Chemical reactions cause [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]] to be removed from the bubble after about one hundred expansion-collapse cycles. The bubble will then begin to emit light [http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v80/i4/p865_1?"Evidence for Gas Exchange in Single-Bubble Sonoluminescence", Matula and Crum, ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' 80 (1998), 865-868]). The light emission of highly compressed noble gas is exploited technologically in the [[argon flash]] devices.

During bubble collapse, the inertia of the surrounding water causes high pressure and high temperature, reaching around 10,000 kelvins in the interior of the bubble, causing the ionization of a small fraction of the noble gas present. The amount ionized is small enough for the bubble to remain transparent, allowing volume emission; surface emission would produce more intense light of longer duration, dependent on [[wavelength]], contradicting experimental results. Electrons from ionized atoms interact mainly with neutral atoms, causing thermal bremsstrahlung radiation. As the wave hits a low energy trough, the pressure drops, allowing electrons to [[Carrier generation and recombination|recombine]] with atoms and light emission to cease due to this lack of free electrons. This makes for a 160-picosecond light pulse for argon (even a small drop in temperature causes a large drop in ionization, due to the large [[ionization energy]] relative to photon energy). This description is simplified from the literature above, which details various steps of differing duration from 15 microseconds (expansion) to 100 picoseconds (emission).

Computations based on the theory presented in the review produce radiation parameters (intensity and duration time versus wavelength) that match experimental results with errors no larger than expected due to some simplifications (e.g., assuming a uniform temperature in the entire bubble), so it seems the phenomenon of sonoluminescence is at least roughly explained, although some details of the process remain obscure.

Any discussion of sonoluminescence must include a detailed analysis of metastability. Sonoluminescence in this respect is what is physically termed a bounded phenomenon meaning that the sonoluminescence exists in a bounded region of parameter space for the bubble; a coupled magnetic field being one such parameter. The magnetic aspects of sonoluminescence are very well documented.<ref>[http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v77/i23/p4816_1?"Sonoluminescence in High Magnetic Fields, J.B. Young, T. Schiemedel and Woowan Kang" (''Physical Review Letters'' 77, 4816)]</ref>

==Other proposals==

===Quantum explanations===
An unusually exotic hypothesis of sonoluminescence, which has received much popular attention, is the Casimir energy hypothesis suggested by noted physicist [[Julian Schwinger]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infinite-energy.com/iemagazine/issue1/colfusthe.html |title=Within article "Cold Fusion: A History of Mine" |publisher=Infinite-energy.com |date=1989-03-23 |accessdate=2012-11-14}}</ref> and more thoroughly considered in a paper by [[Claudia Eberlein]]<ref>Phys. Rev. Lett. 76, 3842 - 3845 (1996); http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9506024v1</ref> of the [[University of Sussex]]. Eberlein's paper suggests that the light in sonoluminescence is generated by the vacuum within the bubble in a process similar to [[Hawking radiation]], the radiation generated at the [[event horizon]] of [[black hole]]s. According to this vacuum energy explanation, since quantum theory holds that vacuum contains [[virtual particle]]s, the rapidly moving interface between water and gas converts virtual photons into real photons. This is related to the [[Unruh effect]] or the [[Casimir effect]]. If true, sonoluminescence may be the first observable example of [[Vacuum state|quantum vacuum radiation]]. The argument has been made that sonoluminescence releases too large an amount of energy and releases the energy on too short a time scale to be consistent with the vacuum energy explanation,<ref>K.A. Milton, “Dimensional and dynamical aspect of the
Casimir effect: understanding the reality and significance
of vacuum energy”, hep-th/0009173 (2000) http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0009173</ref> although other credible sources argue the vacuum energy explanation might yet prove to be correct.<ref>S.Liberati, F.Belgiorno, Matt Visser, "Comment on ``Dimensional and dynamical aspects of the Casimir effect: understanding the reality and significance of vacuum energy''", hep-th/0010140v1 (2000) http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0010140v1</ref>

====Nuclear reactions====
{{main|Bubble fusion}}
Some have argued that the Rayleigh-Plesset equation described above is unreliable for predicting bubble temperatures and that actual temperatures in sonoluminescing systems can be far higher than 20,000 kelvins. Some research claims to have measured temperatures as high as 100,000 kelvins, and speculates temperatures could reach into the millions of kelvins.<ref>{{cite web|author=Nature China |url=http://www.nature.com/nchina/2008/081015/full/nchina.2008.241.html |title=Sonoluminescence: Baking bubbles : Article : Nature China |publisher=Nature.com |date=2008-10-15 |accessdate=2012-11-14}}</ref> Temperatures this high could cause [[thermonuclear fusion]]. This possibility is sometimes referred to as [[bubble fusion]] and is likened to the implosion design used in the fusion component of [[thermonuclear weapon]]s.

On January 27, 2006, researchers at [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] claimed to have produced fusion in sonoluminescence experiments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.rpi.edu/update.do?artcenterkey=1322&setappvar=page(1) |title=RPI: News & Events - New Sonofusion Experiment Produces Results Without External Neutron Source |publisher=News.rpi.edu |date=2006-01-27 |accessdate=2012-11-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060130155542.htm |title=Using Sound Waves To Induce Nuclear Fusion With No External Neutron Source |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=2006-01-31 |accessdate=2012-11-14}}</ref>

Experiments in 2002 and 2005 by [[Rusi Taleyarkhan|R. P. Taleyarkhan]] using deuterated [[acetone]] showed measurements of [[tritium]] and neutron output consistent with fusion. However, the papers were considered low quality and there were doubts cast by a report about the author's scientific misconduct. This made the report lose credibility among the scientific community.<ref name="latimes">[http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-sci-misconduct19-2008jul19,0,1765099.story Purdue physicist found guilty of misconduct], Los Angeles Times, July 19, 2008, Thomas H. Maugh II</ref><ref name="Nature_India_2008">{{cite journal
| first = K. S.
| last = Jayaraman
| title = Bubble fusion discoverer says his science is vindicated
| journal = [[Nature India]]
| doi = 10.1038/nindia.2008.271
| year = 2008
}}</ref><ref name="SFC">{{cite news
| first = Associated
| last = Press
| url = http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2008-08-27-purdue-scientist_N.htm
| title = Purdue reprimands fusion scientist for misconduct
| publisher = USA Today
| date = August 27, 2008
| accessdate = 2010-12-28
}}</ref>

==Biological sonoluminescence==
[[Alpheidae|Pistol shrimp]] (also called ''snapping shrimp'') produce a type of sonoluminescence from a collapsing bubble caused by quickly snapping a specialized claw. The light produced is of lower intensity than the light produced by typical sonoluminescence and is not visible to the naked eye. The light and heat produced may have no direct significance, as it is the shockwave produced by the rapidly collapsing bubble which these shrimp use to stun or kill prey. However, it is the first known instance of an animal producing light by this effect and was whimsically dubbed "shrimpoluminescence" upon its discovery in 2001.<ref>{{cite journal | journal = Nature | volume = 413 | pages = 477–478 | year = 2001 | doi = 10.1038/35097152 | title = Snapping shrimp make flashing bubbles | author = Detlef Lohse, Barbara Schmitz and Michel Versluis | pmid = 11586346 | issue = 6855}}</ref> It has subsequently been discovered that another group of crustaceans, the [[mantis shrimp]], contains species whose club-like forelimbs can strike so quickly and with such force as to induce sonoluminescent cavitation bubbles upon impact.<ref name="Patek and Caldwell">{{cite journal |author=S. N. Patek and R. L. Caldwell |year=2005 |journal=[[Journal of Experimental Biology (journal)|Journal of Experimental Biology]] |volume=208 |pages=3655–3664 |title=Extreme impact and cavitation forces of a biological hammer: strike forces of the peacock mantis shrimp |doi=10.1242/jeb.01831 |pmid=16169943 |issue=Pt 19}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Bubble fusion]]
* [[List of light sources]]
* [[Sonochemistry]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite journal
|author = H. Frenzel and H. Schultes
|year = 1934
|title = Luminescenz im ultraschallbeschickten Wasser
|journal = Z. Phys. Chem.
|volume = B27
|page = 421
}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Gaitan
|first = D. F.
|coauthors = L. A. Crum, R. A. Roy, and C. C. Church
|date = June 1992
|title = Sonoluminescence and bubble dynamics for a single, stable, cavitation bubble
|journal = The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
|volume = 91
|issue = 6
|pages = 3166–3183
|doi = 10.1121/1.402855
|bibcode = 1992ASAJ...91.3166G
}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Brenner
| first = Michael P.
| coauthors = Hilgenfeldt, Sascha; Lohse, Detlef
| date = 2002-05-13
| title = Single bubble sonoluminescence
| journal = Reviews of Modern Physics
| volume = 74
| issue = 2
| pages = 425–484
| publisher = The American Physical Society
| doi = 10.1103/RevModPhys.74.425
| url = http://doc.utwente.nl/42577/1/single-bubble_sonoluminescence.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 2008-05-27
| bibcode=2002RvMP...74..425B
}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Taleyarkhan
|first = R. P.
|authorlink = Rusi Taleyarkhan
|coauthors = C. D. West, J. S. Cho, R. T. Lahey, Jr., R. Nigmatulin, and R. C. Block
|date = 2002-03-08
|title = Evidence for Nuclear Emissions During Acoustic Cavitation
|journal = Science
|volume = 295
|issue = 1868
|id = ISSN 0036-8075
| doi = 10.1126/science.1067589
|url = http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/hottopics/bubble/index.shtml
|accessdate = 2007-05-13
|pmid=11884748
|bibcode=2002Sci...295.1868T
}}
* {{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/15/science/15soni.html |title=Tiny Bubbles Implode With the Heat of a Star |work=New York Times |date=March 15, 2005 |author=Kenneth Chang}}
* John D. Wrbanek, et al.(2009): ''Investigating Sonoluminescence as a Means of Energy Harvesting.'' pages 605–637, in: Marc G. Millis, Eric W. Davis: ''Frontiers of Propulsion Science.'' American Inst. of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Reston, ISBN 1-56347-956-7, [http://naca.larc.nasa.gov/search.jsp?N=0&Ntk=AuthorList|DocumentID&Ntx=mode%20matchall|mode%20matchall&Ntt=Wrbanek|20080006795 Abstract] NASA Technical Reports Server
* {{cite journal
|author = For a "How to" guide for student science projects see: Robert Hiller and Bradley Barber
|year = 1995
|title = Producing Light from a Bubble of Air
|journal = Scientific American
|volume = 272
|issue = 2
|pages = 96–98
|doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican0295-96
}}
*{{cite journal
|first = Paweł
|last = Tatrocki
|year = 2006
|title = Difficulties in Sonoluminescence Theory Based on Quantum Phenomenon of Vacuum Radiation
|journal = PHILICA.com

|id = Article number 19

|url = http://philica.com/display_article.php?article_id=19
}} This article was created in 1996 together with the alternative theory; both were seen by Ms Eberlein. It contains many references to the crucial experimental results in this field.

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* Buzzacchi, Matteo, E. Del Giudice, and G. Preparata, "[http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/quant-ph/9804006 Sonoluminescence Unveiled?]" ''Quantum Physics'', abstract (quant-ph/9804006). Thursday, 2 April 1998 [''ed''. Single Bubble Sonoluminescence (SBSL) phenomenology.]
* [http://www.physik3.gwdg.de/~rgeisle/nld/sbsl-howto.html A how-to guide to setting up a sonoluminescence experiment]
* [http://www.techmind.org/sl/ Another detailed description of a sonoluminescence experiment]
* [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/hbomb41ca/sono.html&date=2009-10-25+23:46:32 A description of the effect and experiment, with a diagram of the apparatus]
* [http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/suslick/images/matula.singlebubble.2cycles.mpg An mpg video of the collapsing bubble (934 kB)]
* [http://stilton.tnw.utwente.nl/shrimp/ Shrimpoluminescence]
* [http://www.impulsedevices.com/ Impulse Devices]
* [http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2004/eaimkhong/sonoluminescence.htm Applications of sonochemistry]
* [http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/5032 Sound waves size up sonoluminescence]
* [http://www.physics.ucla.edu/Sonoluminescence/sono.pdf Sonoluminescence: Sound into light]

'''Newer research papers largely ruling out the vacuum energy explanation'''
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9904013 quant-ph/9904013 S. Liberati, M. Visser, F. Belgiorno, D. Sciama: Sonoluminescence as a QED vacuum effect]
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9811174 hep-th/9811174 K. A. Milton: Sonoluminescence and the Dynamical Casimir Effect]

[[Category:Luminescence]]
[[Category:Ultrasound]]
[[Category:Light sources]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems in physics]]