formulasearchengine - User contributions [en]

Ugly duckling theorem

2014-12-19T20:45:18Z

172.56.40.177: /* Basic idea */

The writer is known as Araceli Gulledge. Years in the past we moved to Kansas. Managing individuals is how I make money and it's something I really enjoy. One of his favorite hobbies is taking part in crochet but he hasn't made a dime with it. Feel free to visit my webpage - [http://Vinodjoseph.com/ActivityFeed/MyProfile/tabid/154/userId/6690/Default.aspx Vinodjoseph.com]

Dry Lake Wind Power Project

2014-02-28T01:39:42Z

172.56.15.76: /* Future development */

There are many types of bike brakes for different applications. If you have toe clips on your pedals, you'll need to spend a little extra time with this exercise. The trail then follows the side of the glacial Lake Pukaki through to Twizel, the town build in the 60s only to house workers from the Waitaki Hydroelectricity Scheme. If they aren't a know brand, don't panic, I'm certain they'll be fit for purpose, but bear in mind if they look really cheap then you may struggle with things such as adjustment of your gears. If you enjoyed this article and you would such as to get more details pertaining to [http://www.winkgames.org/profile/552446/la91q Womens mountain bike sizing.] kindly go to our own web site. Two hunters may choose to use trailers if their distance from the truck is over four or five miles. Similarly mountain bike wheels are also an important feature. "Before breathing exercises it took me 45 minutes to really get into my stride when off road mountain biking. The price you can expect to pay for stems is actually determined by the materials used along with its weight. Sometimes they are internal (drum and coaster brakes), and sometimes they are external (disc brakes). Browse a number of the on-line forums to determine what other riders like and do not like about their bicycles. It seems there is still ongoing trail expansion, so I predict a great future for the Gold Canyon trails. Never miss the chance to experience mountain biking. Buy a bike that has a top quality body made outside of steel, aluminum, carbon fiber or titanium. Hence, having the bicycle that suits you perfectly is much easier now. If you really want a quality bike which will hold up to the rough terrain with out costing a fortune, this is a great choice. When discount sales are on, you need to be sure you understand the terms and conditions of your purchase, including warranty information. You can surpass your rivals if you participate in a match. It is primarily design of Billet Motorola clutch kit that replaces your stock clutch within your GPX 150, 160 and additionally YX 140, 150, 160. Now do your comparison-shopping based on five or six available bikes. To help you choose which one you to buy, here are the list of bikes and their use. A small spot of rust can quickly grow and cause weak areas on your frame. For the next mile and a half the trail is barely over a foot wide, with a precipitous drop to one side and the occasional tree trunk or branch reaching out from the other. Usually, alloy stems tend to be the more cost-effective of the two, however the high end of the level, aluminum stems which have been produced from high-grade alloys could be more expensive than carbon counterparts because they are lighter plus more responsive. Mountain bike wheels provide a good mixture of traction, stability, and sturdiness ; and different riding conditions need specific types of mountain bicycle wheels. As with all kinds of products, the prices for kids dirt bike usually vary depending on the size, style, materials and of course manufacturer.

Latent heat

2014-01-26T20:57:28Z

172.56.30.222: /* History */

{{electromagnetism|cTopic=[[Electrical network|Electrical Network]]}}

In [[electromagnetism]] and [[electronics]], '''inductance''' is the property of a [[electrical conductor|conductor]] by which a change in [[electric Current|current]] in the conductor "induces" (creates) a [[voltage]] ([[electromotive force]]) in both the conductor itself (self-inductance)<ref name="Sears and Zemansky 1964:743">Sears and Zemansky 1964:743</ref><ref>http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Inductance?s=t</ref><ref name="Collins Gem Encyclopedia">Collins Gem Encyclopedia</ref> and in any nearby conductors (mutual inductance).<ref name="Sears and Zemansky 1964:743"/><ref name="Collins Gem Encyclopedia"/> These effects are derived from two fundamental observations of physics: First, that a steady current creates a steady magnetic field ([[Oersted's law]]),<ref>Sears and Zemansksy 1964:671</ref> and second, that a time-varying magnetic field induces [[voltage]] in nearby conductors ([[Faraday's law of induction]]).<ref>Sears and Zemansky 1964:671 -- "The work of Oersted thus demonstrated that magnetic effects could be produced by moving electric charges, and that of Faraday and Henry that currents could be produced by moving magnets."</ref> According to [[Lenz's law]],<ref>Sears and Zemansky 1964:731 -- "The direction of an induced current is such as to oppose the cause producing it".</ref> a changing electric current through a circuit that contains inductance, induces a proportional voltage, which opposes the change in current (self-inductance). The varying field in this circuit may also induce an e.m.f. in neighbouring circuits (mutual inductance).

The term 'inductance' was coined by [[Oliver Heaviside]] in February 1886.<ref>Heaviside, O. Electrician. Feb. 12, 1886, p. 271. See [http://books.google.com/books?id=bywPAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=elecrrical+papers+heavyside reprint]</ref> It is customary to use the symbol ''L'' for inductance, in honour of the physicist [[Heinrich Lenz]].<ref>{{cite web
| author = Glenn Elert
| title = The Physics Hypertextbook: Inductance
| url = http://hypertextbook.com/physics/electricity/inductance/
| year = 1998–2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| author = Michael W. Davidson
| title = Molecular Expressions: Electricity and Magnetism Introduction: Inductance
| url = http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/electricity/inductance.html
| year = 1995–2008}}</ref>
In the [[International System of Units|SI]] system the measurement unit for inductance is the [[henry (unit)|henry]], H, named in honor of the scientist who discovered inductance, [[Joseph Henry]].

To add inductance to a circuit, [[electrical component|electrical]] or [[electronic component|electronic]] components called [[inductor]]s are used. Inductors are typically manufactured out of coils of wire, with this design delivering two circumstances, one, a concentration of the magnetic field, and two, a linking of the magnetic field into the circuit more than once.

The relationship between the self-inductance ''L'' of an electrical circuit (in [[henries]]), voltage, and current is
:<math>\displaystyle V= L\frac{di}{dt}</math>
Where ''V'' denotes the voltage (in volts), and di/dt denotes the change in current (in amperes) over a specific time period. The formula implicitly states that a voltage is induced across an inductor, equal to the product of the inductor's inductance, and current's rate of change through the inductor.

All practical circuits have some inductance, which may provide beneficial or detrimental effects. For a [[tuned circuit]], inductance is used to provide a frequency selective circuit. Practical inductors may be used to provide filtering, or energy storage, in a given network. The inductance of a [[transmission line]] is one of the properties that determines its [[characteristic impedance]]; balancing the inductance and capacitance of cables is important for distortion-free [[telegraphy]] and [[telephony]]. The inductance of lengthy power transmission lines effectively results in a lessened delivery of AC power, due to the combination of inductance, coupled with transmission lines being spread across great distances. Sensitive circuits, such as [[microphone]] and [[computer network]] cables, may utilize special cabling construction, limiting the mutual inductance between signal circuits.

==In circuit analysis==
The generalization to the case of ''K'' electrical circuits with currents ''im'' and voltages ''Vm'' reads
:<math>\displaystyle V_{m}=\sum\limits_{n=1}^{K}L_{m,n}\frac{di_{n}}{dt}.</math>

Here, Inductance is a symmetric matrix. The diagonal coefficients ''Lm,m'' are called coefficients of self-inductance, the off-diagonal elements are called coefficients of mutual inductance. The coefficients of inductance are constant, as long as no magnetizable material with nonlinear characteristics are involved. This is a direct consequence of the linearity of [[Maxwell's equations]] in the fields and the current density. The coefficients of inductance become functions of the currents in the nonlinear case, see [[#Nonlinear inductance|nonlinear inductance]].

==Derivation from Faraday's law of inductance==
The inductance equations above are a consequence of [[Maxwell's equations]]. There is a straightforward derivation in the important case of electrical circuits consisting of thin wires.

Consider a system of ''K'' wire loops, each with one or several wire turns. The [[flux linkage]] of loop ''m'' is given by
:<math>\displaystyle N_{m}\Phi _{m}=\sum\limits_{n=1}^{K}L_{m,n}i_{n}.</math>
Here ''Nm'' denotes the number of turns in loop ''m'', Φ''m'' the [[magnetic flux]] through this loop, and ''Lm,n'' are some constants. This equation follows from [[Ampere's law]] - magnetic fields and fluxes are linear functions of the currents. By [[Faraday's law of induction|Faraday's law]] of induction we have
:<math>\displaystyle V_{m}=N_{m}\frac{d\Phi _{m}}{dt}=\sum\limits_{n=1}^{K}L_{m,n}\frac{di_{n}}{dt},</math>
where ''vm'' denotes the voltage induced in circuit ''m''. This agrees with the definition of inductance above if the coefficients ''Lm,n'' are identified with the coefficients of inductance. Because the total currents ''Nnin'' contribute to Φ''m'' it also follows that ''Lm,n'' is proportional to the product of turns ''NmNn''.

==Inductance and magnetic field energy==

Multiplying the equation for ''Vm'' above with ''imdt'' and summing over ''m'' gives the energy transferred to the system in the time interval ''dt'',
:<math>\displaystyle
\sum\limits_{m}^{K}i_{m}V_{m}dt=\sum\limits_{m,n=1}^{K}i_{m}L_{m,n}di_{n}
\overset{!}{=}\sum\limits_{n=1}^{K}\frac{\partial W\left( i\right) }{\partial i_{n}}di_{n}.</math>

This must agree with the change of the magnetic field energy ''W'' caused by the currents.<ref>The kinetic energy of the drifting electrons is many orders of magnitude smaller than W, except for nanowires.</ref> The integrability condition
:<math>\displaystyle\partial ^{2}W/\partial i_{m}\partial i_{n}=\partial ^{2}W/\partial i_{n}\partial i_{m}</math>
requires ''Lm,n=Ln,m''. The inductance matrix ''Lm,n'' thus is symmetric. The integral of the energy transfer is the magnetic field energy as a function of the currents,
:<math>\displaystyle W\left( i\right) =\tfrac{1}{2}\sum \limits_{m,n=1}^{K}i_{m}L_{m,n}i_{n}.</math>
This equation also is a direct consequence of the linearity of Maxwell's equations. It is helpful to associate changing electric currents with a build-up or decrease of magnet field energy. The corresponding energy transfer requires or generates a voltage. A mechanical analogy in the ''K''=1 case with magnetic field energy (1/2)''Li''2 is a body with mass ''M'', velocity ''u'' and kinetic energy (1/2)''Mu''2. The rate of change of velocity (current) multiplied with mass (inductance) requires or generates a force (an electrical voltage).

==Coupled inductors==
{{Further|Coupling (electronics)}}

[[Image:Mutually inducting inductors.PNG|thumb|300px|right|The circuit diagram representation of mutually coupled inductors.

The two vertical lines between the inductors indicate a ''solid core'' that the wires of the inductor are wrapped around. "n:m" shows the ratio between the number of windings of the left inductor to windings of the right inductor. This picture also shows the [[dot convention]].]]

'''Mutual inductance''' occurs when the change in current in one inductor induces a voltage in another nearby inductor. It is important as the mechanism by which [[transformer]]s work, but it can also cause unwanted coupling between conductors in a circuit.

The mutual inductance, ''M'', is also a measure of the coupling between two inductors. The mutual inductance by circuit ''i'' on circuit ''j'' is given by the double integral ''[[Franz Ernst Neumann|Neumann]] formula'', see [[#Calculation techniques|calculation techniques]]

The mutual inductance also has the relationship:
:<math>M_{21} = N_1 N_2 P_{21} \!</math>
where
:<math>M_{21}</math> is the mutual inductance, and the subscript specifies the relationship of the voltage induced in coil 2 due to the current in coil 1.
:''N''1 is the number of turns in coil 1,
:''N''2 is the number of turns in coil 2,
:''P''21 is the [[permeance]] of the space occupied by the flux.

The mutual inductance also has a relationship with the coupling coefficient. The coupling coefficient is always between 1 and 0, and is a convenient way to specify the relationship between a certain orientation of inductors with arbitrary inductance:

:<math>M = k \sqrt{L_1 L_2} \! </math>
where
:''k'' is the ''coupling coefficient'' and 0 ≤ ''k'' ≤ 1,
:''L''1 is the inductance of the first coil, and
:''L''2 is the inductance of the second coil.

Once the mutual inductance, ''M'', is determined from this factor, it can be used to predict the behavior of a circuit:
:<math> V_1 = L_1 \frac{dI_1}{dt} - M \frac{dI_2}{dt} </math>
where
:''V''1 is the voltage across the inductor of interest,
:''L''1 is the inductance of the inductor of interest,
:d''I''1/d''t'' is the derivative, with respect to time, of the current through the inductor of interest,
:d''I''2/d''t'' is the derivative, with respect to time, of the current through the inductor that is coupled to the first inductor, and
:''M'' is the mutual inductance.

The minus sign arises because of the sense the current ''I''2 has been defined in the diagram. With both currents defined going into the dots the sign of M will be positive.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mahmood Nahvi, Joseph Edminister|url=http://books.google.com/?id=nrxT9Qjguk8C&pg=PA338|title= Schaum's outline of theory and problems of electric circuits|page=338|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|year=2002|isbn=0-07-139307-2}}</ref>

When one inductor is closely coupled to another inductor through mutual inductance, such as in a [[transformer]], the voltages, currents, and number of turns can be related in the following way:

:<math>V_\text{s} = \frac{N_\text{s}}{N_\text{p}} V_\text{p} </math>
where
:''V''s is the voltage across the secondary inductor,
:''V''p is the voltage across the primary inductor (the one connected to a power source),
:''N''s is the number of turns in the secondary inductor, and
:''N''p is the number of turns in the primary inductor.

Conversely the current:

:<math>I_\text{s} = \frac{N_\text{p}}{N_\text{s}} I_\text{p} </math>
where
:''I''s is the current through the secondary inductor,
:''I''p is the current through the primary inductor (the one connected to a power source),
:''N''s is the number of turns in the secondary inductor, and
:''N''p is the number of turns in the primary inductor.

Note that the power through one inductor is the same as the power through the other. Also note that these equations don't work if both inductors are forced (with power sources).

When either side of the transformer is a [[tuned circuit]], the amount of mutual inductance between the two windings determines the shape of the frequency response curve. Although no boundaries are defined, this is often referred to as loose-, critical-, and over-coupling. When two tuned circuits are loosely coupled through mutual inductance, the bandwidth will be narrow. As the amount of mutual inductance increases, the bandwidth continues to grow. When the mutual inductance is increased beyond a critical point, the peak in the response curve begins to drop, and the center frequency will be attenuated more strongly than its direct sidebands. This is known as overcoupling.

==Calculation techniques==
In the most general case, inductance can be calculated from Maxwell's equations. Many important cases can be solved using simplifications. Where high frequency currents are considered, with [[skin effect]], the surface current densities and magnetic field may be obtained by solving the Laplace equation. Where the conductors are thin wires, self-inductance still depends on the wire radius and the distribution of the current in the wire. This current distribution is approximately constant (on the surface or in the volume of the wire) for a wire radius much smaller than other length scales.

===Mutual inductance of two wire loops===

The mutual inductance by a filamentary circuit ''m'' on a filamentary circuit ''n'' is given by the double integral ''[[Franz Ernst Neumann|Neumann]] formula''<ref>{{cite journal | title = Allgemeine Gesetze der inducirten elektrischen Ströme | journal = Abhandlungen der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, aus dem Jahre 1845 | year = 1847 | first = F. E. | last = Neumann | pages = 1–87| id = }}</ref>
:<math> L_{m,n} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \oint_{C_m}\oint_{C_n} \frac{\mathbf{dx}_m\cdot\mathbf{dx}_n}{|\mathbf{x}_m - \mathbf{x}_n|} </math>
The symbol μ0 denotes the [[magnetic constant]] ({{nowrap|4{{pi}} × 10−7 H/m}}), ''Cm'' and ''Cn'' are the curves spanned by the wires. See a [[Inductance/derivation of self inductance|derivation of this equation]].

===Self-inductance of a wire loop===
Formally the self-inductance of a wire loop would be given by the above equation with ''m'' = ''n''. The problem, however, is that ''1/|'''x'''-'''x''''|'' now becomes infinite, making it necessary to take the finite wire radius ''a'' and the distribution of the current in the wire into account. There remain the contribution from the integral over all points with ''|'''x'''-'''x''''|'' > ''a''/2 and a correction term,<ref name="den12">{{cite arXiv |last=Dengler |first=R. |eprint=1204.1486 |title=Self inductance of a wire loop as a curve integral|year=2012 }}</ref>

:<math> L = \left (\frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \oint_{C}\oint_{C'} \frac{\mathbf{dx}\cdot\mathbf{dx}'}{|\mathbf{x} - \mathbf{x}'|}\right )_{|\mathbf{x} - \mathbf{x}'| > a/2}
+ \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi}lY + O\left( \mu_0 a \right ).</math>

Here ''a'' and ''l'' denote radius and length of the wire, and ''Y'' is a constant that depends on the distribution of the current in the wire: ''Y'' = 0 when the current flows in the surface of the wire ([[skin effect]]), ''Y'' = 1/2 when the current is homogeneous across the wire. This approximation is accurate when the wires are long compared to their cross-sectional dimensions.

===Method of images===
In some cases different current distributions generate the same magnetic field in some section of space. This fact may be used to relate self inductances ([[method of images]]). As an example consider the two systems:
* A wire at distance ''d/2'' in front of a perfectly conducting wall (which is the return)
* Two parallel wires at distance ''d'', with opposite current

The magnetic field of the two systems coincides (in a half space). The magnetic field energy and the inductance of the second system thus are twice as large as that of the first system.

===Relation between inductance and capacitance===
Inductance per length L' and [[capacitance]] per length C' are related to each other in the special case of [[transmission lines]] consisting of two parallel perfect conductors of arbitrary but constant cross section,<ref name="class_electro75">{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=J. D. |title=Classical Electrodynamics|year=1975 |publisher=Wiley |page=262}}</ref>
:<math>\displaystyle L'C'={\varepsilon \mu}.</math>

Here ε and µ denote dielectric constant and [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|magnetic permeability]] of the medium the conductors are embedded in. There is no electric and no magnetic field inside the conductors (complete [[skin effect]], high frequency). Current flows down on one line and returns on the other. Signals will propagate along the transmission line at the speed of electromagnetic radiation in the non-conductive medium enveloping the conductors.

==Self-inductance of simple electrical circuits in air==
The self-inductance of many types of electrical circuits can be given in closed form. Examples are listed in the table.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Inductance of simple electrical circuits in air
! Type !! Inductance !! Comment
|-
! Single layer solenoid<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lorenz |first=L. |title=Über die Fortpflanzung der Elektrizität |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=VII |pages=161–193. (The expression given is the inductance of a cylinder with a current around its surface). |year=1879}}</ref>
| <math> \frac{\mu_0r^{2}N^{2}}{3l}\left[ -8w + 4\frac{\sqrt{1+m}}{m}\left( K\left( \sqrt{\frac{m}{1+m}} \right)
-\left( 1-m\right) E\left( \sqrt{ \frac{m}{1+m}} \right) \right)
\right]
</math>
<math>=\frac{\mu_0r^2N^2\pi}{l}\left[ 1-\frac{8w}{3\pi }+\sum_{n=1}^{\infty }
\frac {\left( 2n\right)!^2} {n!^4 \left(n+1\right)\left(2n-1\right)2^{2n}}
\left( -1\right) ^{n+1}w^{2n}\right]</math> 
<math>
=\frac {\mu_0r^2N^2\pi}{l}\left( 1 - \frac{8w}{3\pi} + \frac{w^2}{2} - \frac{w^4}{4} + \frac{5w^6}{16} - \frac{35w^8}{64} + ... \right)
</math> for w << 1 
<math>= \mu_0rN^2 \left[ \left( 1 + \frac{1}{32w^2} + O\left(\frac{1}{w^4}\right) \right) \ln(8w) - 1/2 + \frac{1}{128w^2} + O\left(\frac{1}{w^4}\right) \right] </math> for w >> 1
| ''N'': Number of turns ''r'': Radius ''l'': Length ''w = r/l'' ''m = 4w2'' ''E,K'': [[Elliptic integral]]s
|-
! Coaxial cable, high frequency
| <math> \frac {\mu_0 l}{2\pi} \ln\left(\frac {a_1}{a}\right) </math>
| a1: Outer radius a: Inner radius ''l'': Length
|-
! Circular loop<ref>{{cite book | last = Elliott | first = R. S. | title = Electromagnetics | publisher = IEEE Press | year = 1993 | location = New York}} Note: The constant -3/2 in the result for a uniform current distribution is wrong.</ref>
| <math>\mu_0r \cdot \left( \ln\left(\frac {8 r}{a}\right) - 2 + \frac{Y}{2} +O\left(a^2/r^2\right)\right) </math>
| r: Loop radius a: Wire radius
|-
! Rectangle<ref>{{cite journal | title = The Self and Mutual Inductances of Linear Conductors | journal = Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards | year = 1908 | first = E.B. | last = Rosa | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | pages = 301–344| id = | doi=10.6028/bulletin.088}}</ref>
| <math>\frac {\mu_0}{\pi}\left(b\ln\left(\frac {2 b}{a}\right) + d\ln\left(\frac {2d}{a}\right) - \left(b+d\right)\left(2-\frac{Y}{2}\right)+2\sqrt{b^2+d^2}\right)</math>
<math>\;\; -\frac {\mu_0}{\pi}\left(b\cdot\operatorname{arsinh}\left(\frac {b}{d}\right)+d\cdot\operatorname{arsinh}\left(\frac {d}{b}\right) + O\left(a\right)\right)</math>
|b, d: Border length d >> a, b >> a a: Wire radius
|-
! Pair of parallel wires
| <math> \frac {\mu_0 l}{\pi} \left( \ln\left(\frac {d}{a}\right) + \frac {Y} {2} \right) </math>
| a: Wire radius d: Distance, d ≥ 2a ''l'': Length of pair
|-
! Pair of parallel wires, high frequency
| <math> \frac{\mu_0 l}{\pi }\operatorname{arcosh}\left( \frac{d}{2a}\right) = \frac{\mu_0 l}{\pi }\ln \left( \frac{d}{2a}+\sqrt{\frac{d^{2}}{4a^{2}}-1}\right)</math>
| a: Wire radius d: Distance, d ≥ 2a ''l'': Length of pair
|-
! Wire parallel to perfectly conducting wall
| <math> \frac {\mu_0 l}{2\pi} \left( \ln\left(\frac {2d}{a}\right) + \frac {Y} {2} \right)</math>
| a: Wire radius d: Distance, d ≥ a ''l'': Length
|-
! Wire parallel to conducting wall, high frequency
| <math> \frac{\mu_0 l}{2\pi }\operatorname{arcosh}\left( \frac{d}{a}\right)=\frac{\mu_0 l}{2\pi }\ln \left(\frac{d}{a}+\sqrt{\frac{d^{2}}{a^{2}}-1}\right)</math>
| a: Wire radius d: Distance, d ≥ a ''l'': Length
|}

The symbol μ0 denotes the [[magnetic constant]] (4π×10−7 H/m). For high frequencies the electric current flows in the conductor surface
([[skin effect]]), and depending on the geometry it sometimes is necessary to distinguish
low and high frequency inductances. This is the purpose of the constant ''Y'':
''Y'' = 0 when the current is uniformly distributed over the surface of the wire (skin effect),
''Y'' = 1/2 when the current is uniformly distributed over the cross section of the wire. In the high frequency case, if conductors approach each other, an additional screening current flows in their surface, and expressions containing Y become invalid.

==Inductance with physical symmetry==

===Inductance of a solenoid===
A [[solenoid]] is a long, thin coil, i.e. a coil whose length is much greater than the diameter. Under these conditions, and without any magnetic material used, the [[Magnetic field|magnetic flux density]] <math>B</math> within the coil is practically constant and is given by
:<math>\displaystyle B = \mu_0 Ni/l</math>
where <math>\mu_0</math> is the [[magnetic constant]], <math>N</math> the number of turns, <math>i</math> the current and <math>l</math> the length of the coil. Ignoring end effects, the total magnetic flux through the coil is obtained by multiplying the flux density <math>B</math> by the cross-section area <math>A</math>:
:<math>\displaystyle \Phi = \mu_0 N i A/l,</math>
When this is combined with the definition of inductance,
:<math>\displaystyle L = N \Phi/i</math>
it follows that the inductance of a solenoid is given by:
:<math>\displaystyle L = \mu_0N^2A/l.</math>

A table of inductance for short solenoids of various diameter to length ratios has been calculated by Dellinger, Whittmore, and Ould<ref>{{cite journal
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Xn8KbsgeFrwC&pg=PA248#v=onepage&q=&f=false
| title = Radio Instruments and Measurements
| author = D. Howard Dellinger, L. E. Whittmore, and R. S. Ould
| year= 1924
| journal = NBS Circular
| publisher = National Bureau of Standards
| volume= C74
| accessdate=2009-09-07
}}</ref>

This, and the inductance of more complicated shapes, can be derived from [[Maxwell's equations]]. For rigid air-core coils, inductance is a function of coil geometry and number of turns, and is independent of current.

Similar analysis applies to a solenoid with a magnetic core, but only if the length of the coil is much greater than the product of the relative permeability of the magnetic core and the diameter. That limits the simple analysis to low-permeability cores, or extremely long thin solenoids. Although rarely useful, the equations are,
:<math>\displaystyle B = \mu_0\mu_r Ni/l</math>
where <math>\mu_r</math> the relative permeability of the material within the solenoid,
:<math>\displaystyle \Phi = \mu_0\mu_rNiA/l,</math>
from which it follows that the inductance of a solenoid is given by:
:<math>\displaystyle L = \mu_0\mu_rN^2A/l.</math>
where N is squared because of the definition of inductance.

Note that since the permeability of ferromagnetic materials changes with applied magnetic flux, the inductance of a coil with a ferromagnetic core will generally vary with current.

===Inductance of a coaxial line===
Let the inner conductor have radius <math>r_i</math> and [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] <math>\mu_i</math>, let the dielectric between the inner and outer conductor have permeability <math>\mu_d</math>, and let the outer conductor have inner radius <math>r_{o1}</math>, outer radius <math>r_{o2}</math>, and permeability <math>\mu_o</math>. Assume that a DC current <math>I</math> flows in opposite directions in the two conductors, with uniform current density. The magnetic field generated by these currents points in the azimuthal direction and is a function of radius <math>r</math>; it can be computed using [[Ampère's circuital law|Ampère's law]]:

:<math>0 \leq r \leq r_i: B(r) = \frac{\mu_i I r}{2 \pi r_i^2}</math>
:<math>r_i \leq r \leq r_{o1}: B(r) = \frac{\mu_d I}{2 \pi r}</math>
:<math>r_{o1} \leq r \leq r_{o2}: B(r) = \frac{\mu_o I}{2 \pi r} \left( \frac{r_{o2}^2 - r^2}{r_{o2}^2 - r_{o1}^2} \right)</math>

The flux per length <math>l</math> in the region between the conductors can be computed by drawing a surface containing the axis:

:<math>\frac{d\phi_d}{dl} = \int_{r_i}^{r_{o1}} B(r) dr = \frac{\mu_d I}{2 \pi} \ln\frac{r_{o1}}{r_i} </math>

Inside the conductors, L can be computed by equating the energy stored in an inductor, <math>\frac{1}{2}LI^2</math>, with the energy stored in the magnetic field:

:<math>\frac{1}{2}LI^2 = \int_V \frac{B^2}{2\mu} dV</math>

For a cylindrical geometry with no <math>l</math> dependence, the energy per unit length is

:<math>\frac{1}{2}L'I^2 = \int_{r_1}^{r_2} \frac{B^2}{2\mu} 2 \pi r~dr</math>

where <math>L'</math> is the inductance per unit length. For the inner conductor, the integral on the right-hand-side is <math>\frac{\mu_i I^2}{16 \pi}</math>; for the outer conductor it is <math>\frac{\mu_o I^2}{4 \pi} \left( \frac{r_{o2}^2}{r_{o2}^2 - r_{o1}^2} \right)^2 \ln\frac{r_{o2}}{r_{o1}} - \frac{\mu_o I^2}{8 \pi} \left( \frac{r_{o2}^2}{r_{o2}^2 - r_{o1}^2} \right) - \frac{\mu_o I^2}{16 \pi}</math>

Solving for <math>L'</math> and summing the terms for each region together gives a total inductance per unit length of:

:<math>L' = \frac{\mu_i}{8 \pi} + \frac{\mu_d}{2 \pi} \ln\frac{r_{o1}}{r_i} + \frac{\mu_o}{2 \pi} \left( \frac{r_{o2}^2}{r_{o2}^2 - r_{o1}^2} \right)^2 \ln\frac{r_{o2}}{r_{o1}} - \frac{\mu_o}{4 \pi} \left( \frac{r_{o2}^2}{r_{o2}^2 - r_{o1}^2} \right) - \frac{\mu_o}{8 \pi}</math>

However, for a typical coaxial line application we are interested in passing (non-DC) signals at frequencies for which the resistive [[skin effect]] cannot be neglected. In most cases, the inner and outer conductor terms are negligible, in which case one may approximate

:<math>L' = \frac{dL}{dl} \approx \frac{\mu_d}{2 \pi} \ln\frac{r_{o1}}{r_i}</math>

==Phasor circuit analysis and impedance==

Using [[Phasor (electronics)|phasors]], the equivalent [[Electrical impedance|impedance]] of an inductance is given by:

:<math>Z_L = V / I = j \omega L \, </math>
where
: ''j'' is the [[imaginary unit]],
: ''L'' is the inductance,
: ''ω = 2πf'' is the [[angular frequency]],
: ''f'' is the [[frequency]] and
: ''ωL = XL'' is the inductive [[Reactance (electronics)|reactance]].

==Nonlinear inductance==

Many inductors make use of [[magnetic materials]]. These materials over a large enough range exhibit a nonlinear permeability with such effects as [[saturation (magnetic)|saturation]]. This in-turn makes the resulting inductance a function of the applied current. Faraday's Law still holds but inductance is ambiguous and is different whether you are calculating circuit parameters or magnetic fluxes.

The secant or large-signal inductance is used in flux calculations. It is defined as:

:<math>L_s(i)\ \overset{\underset{\mathrm{def}}{}}{=} \ \frac{N\Phi}{i} = \frac{\Lambda}{i}</math>

The differential or small-signal inductance, on the other hand, is used in calculating voltage. It is defined as:

:<math>L_d(i)\ \overset{\underset{\mathrm{def}}{}}{=} \ \frac{d(N\Phi)}{di} = \frac{d\Lambda}{di}</math>

The circuit voltage for a nonlinear inductor is obtained via the differential inductance as shown by Faraday's Law and the [[chain rule]] of calculus.

:<math>V(t) = \frac{d\Lambda}{dt} = \frac{d\Lambda}{di}\frac{di}{dt} = L_d(i)\frac{di}{dt}</math>

There are similar definitions for nonlinear mutual inductances.

==See also==
<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">
*[[Alternating current]]
*[[Dot convention]]
*[[Eddy current]]
*[[Electromagnetic induction]]
*[[Electricity]]
*[[Faraday's law of induction]]
*[[Gyrator]]
*[[Hydraulic analogy]]
*[[Inductor]]
*[[Leakage inductance]]
*[[LC circuit]]
*[[Magnetomotive force]] (MMF)
*[[RLC circuit]]
*[[RL circuit]]
*[[SI electromagnetism units]]
*[[Solenoid]]
*[[Transformer]]
*[[Kinetic inductance]]
*[[LCR meter]]
</div>

==References==
{{More footnotes|date=September 2009}}
{{reflist}}

==General references==
*{{cite book|author=Frederick W. Grover|title=Inductance Calculations| publisher=Dover Publications, New York|year=1952}}
*{{cite book|author=Griffiths, David J.|title=Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.)| publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1998 |isbn=0-13-805326-X}}
*{{cite book|first=Roald K.|last=Wangsness|year=1986|title=Electromagnetic Fields|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley|isbn=0-471-81186-6}}
*{{cite book|author=Hughes, Edward.|title=Electrical & Electronic Technology (8th ed.)| publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2002 |isbn=0-582-40519-X}}
*[[Karl Küpfmüller|Küpfmüller K.]], ''Einführung in die theoretische Elektrotechnik,'' Springer-Verlag, 1959.
*Heaviside O., ''Electrical Papers.'' Vol.1. – L.; N.Y.: Macmillan, 1892, p. 429-560.
* [[Fritz Langford-Smith]], editor (1953). ''[https://archive.org/stream/bitsavers_rcaRadiotr1954_94958503/Radiotron_Designers_Handbook_1954#page/n469/mode/2up Radiotron Designer's Handbook]'', 4th Edition, Amalgamated Wireless Valve Company Pty., Ltd. Chapter 10, "Calculation of Inductance" (pp. 429–448), includes a wealth of formulas and nomographs for coils, solenoids, and mutual inductance.
*F. W. Sears and M. W. Zemansky 1964 ''University Physics: Third Edition (Complete Volume)'', Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Reading MA, LCCC 63-15265 (no ISBN).

==External links==
*[http://www.cvel.clemson.edu/emc/calculators/Inductance_Calculator/index.html''Clemson Vehicular Electronics Laboratory: Inductance Calculator'']


[[Category:Electrodynamics]]
[[Category:Physical quantities]]

Current density

2013-12-31T21:44:14Z

172.56.21.234: /* Definition */

'''Medallion knitting''' produces flat [[knitted fabric]]s that are circular or [[polygon]]s using a technique similar to the [[crochet]] of [[doily|doilies]], by progressively increasing or decreasing the radius.

The most difficult part of flat medallion knitting is [[increase (knitting)|increasing]] or [[decrease (knitting)|decreasing]] at just the right rate. The [[circumference]] <math>c</math> of a [[circle]] is related to its [[radius]] <math>r</math> by the formula <math>c=2\pi r</math>. Therefore, the number of stitches <math>n</math> in a row at radius <math>r</math> must exactly equal that circumference times the [[gauge (knitting)|stitch gauge]], if the medallion is to lie flat. If the number of stitches is ''fewer'' than this, the medallion will cup at its edges, forming a spherical bowl; if the number of stitches ''exceeds'' this, the medallion will frill at its edges, forming ruffles. Therefore, one should measure the radius regularly as the medallion is being knitted and determine the number of stitches that need to be [[increase (knitting)|increased]] or [[decrease (knitting)|decreased]] in each round. Of course, these [[increase (knitting)|increases]] or [[decrease (knitting)|decreases]] should be spread evenly around the circumference.

''If'' the initial number of stitches were exactly correct and ''if'' every row were exactly the same height, flat medallions could be ensured by [[increase (knitting)|increasing]] or [[decrease (knitting)|decreasing]] the same number of stitches <math>\Delta n</math> in every row using the formula

:<math>
\Delta n = 2\pi \frac{\mathrm{stitch\ gauge}}{\mathrm{row\ gauge}}
</math>

''provided that'' <math>\Delta n</math> were exactly an integer. Most medallion knitting patterns implicitly assume that this will work, e.g., "increase five stitches per round". Unfortunately, the knitter's gauges may differ from those of the pattern-maker and may even change with the circumference, and <math>\Delta n</math> is rarely an integer, so it is usually better to use the method outlined in the previous paragraph.

==References==

* June Hemmons Hiatt (2012) ''The Principles of Knitting'', Simon and Schuster, pg 372. ISBN 978-1-4165-3517-1

{{knitting}}

[[Category:Knitted fabrics]]

{{textile-arts-stub}}

SIGSALY

2013-12-22T03:54:57Z

172.56.20.95: /* Usage */

{{Generalize|date=October 2009}}

A '''rotary variable differential transformer''' ('''RVDT''') is a type of electrical [[transformer]] used for measuring [[angular displacement]].

More precisely, a Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) is an electromechanical transducer that provides a variable alternating current (AC) output voltage that is linearly proportional to the angular displacement of its input shaft. When energized with a fixed AC source, the output signal is linear within a specified range over the angular displacement.

RVDT’s utilize brushless, non-contacting technology to ensure long-life and reliable, repeatable position sensing with infinite resolution. Such reliable and repeatable performance assures accurate position sensing under the most extreme operating conditions.

Most RVDT are composed of a wound, [[laminated]] [[stator]] and a [[salient pole|salient]] two-pole [[Rotor (electric)|rotor]]. The stator, containing four slots, contains both the [[primary winding]] and the two secondary windings. Some secondary windings may also be connected together.

== Operation of RVDT's ==
[[File:RVDT.svg|thumb|Scheme]]
[[File:RVDT-Kennlinie.svg|thumb|Characteristics]]
The two induced [[voltage]]s of the secondary windings, <math>V_1</math> and <math>V_2</math>, vary linearly to the mechanical angle of the rotor, θ:

:<math>\theta\ = G \cdot\ \left( \frac{V_1 - V_2}{V_1 + V_2} \right)</math>

where <math>G</math> is the [[gain]] or sensitivity. The second voltage can be reverse determined by:

:<math>V_2 = V_1 \pm \ G \cdot\ \theta\ </math>

The difference <math>V_1 - V_2</math> gives a [[proportionality (mathematics)|proportional]] voltage:

:<math> \Delta\ V = 2 \cdot\ G \cdot\ \theta\ </math>

and the sum of the voltages is a constant:

:<math>C= \sum\ V = 2 \cdot\ V_0</math>

This constant gives the RVDT great stability of the angular information, independence of the input voltage or [[frequency]], or [[temperature]], and enables it to also detect a malfunction.

Putting the above mathematical equations in some theoretical form, the working of RVDT can be explained as below :-

Basic RVDT construction and operation is provided by rotating an iron-core bearing supported within a housed stator assembly. The housing is passivated stainless steel. The stator consists of a primary excitation coil and a pair of secondary output coils.
A fixed alternating current excitation is applied to the primary stator coil that is electromagnetically coupled to the secondary coils. This coupling is proportional to the angle of the input shaft. The output pair is structured so that one coil is in-phase with the excitation coil, and the second is 180 degrees out-of-phase with the excitation coil.
When the rotor is in a position that directs the available flux equally in both the in-phase and out-of-phase coils, the output voltages cancel and result in a zero value signal. This is referred to as the electrical zero position or E.Z. When the rotor shaft is displaced from E.Z., the resulting output signals have a magnitude and phase relationship proportional to the direction of rotation.
Because RVDT’s perform essentially like a transformer, excitation voltages changes will cause directly proportional changes to the output (transformation ratio). However, the voltage out to excitation voltage ratio will remain constant. Since most RVDT signal conditioning systems measure signal as a function of the transformation ratio (TR), excitation voltage drift beyond 7.5% typically has no effect on sensor accuracy and strict voltage regulation is not typically necessary. Excitation frequency should be controlled within +/- 1% to maintain accuracy

Although the RVDT can theoretically operate between ±45°, [[accuracy]] decreases quickly after ±35°. Thus, its operational limits lie mostly within ±30°, but some up to ±40°. Certain types can operate up to ±60°.

The advantages of the RVDT are :
* low sensitivity to temperature, primary voltage & frequency variations
* sturdiness
* low cost
* simple control electronics
* small size

== RVDT varieties ==

An''' RVDT''' can also be designed with two [[laminate|laminations]], one containing the primary and the other, the secondaries. These types can operate on larger rotations.

A similar transformer is called the Rotary Variable Transformer and contains only one secondary winding giving only one voltage:

:<math>V = G \cdot\ \theta\ </math>

== See also ==
* [[Rotary encoder]]
* [[Synchro]]
* [[Resolver (electrical)|Resolver]]
* [[LVDT]], Linear-movement counterpart to the RVDT

== External links ==
* [http://www.metrolog.net/transdutores/rvdt.php?lang=en RVDT Sensors and applications]
* [http://www.positek.com/rotary.htm Selection of Rotary Sensors]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rotary Variable Differential Transformer}}
[[Category:Transformers (electrical)]]
[[Category:Sensors]]