formulasearchengine - User contributions [en]

K-graph C*-algebra

2014-04-08T15:32:17Z

152.17.114.206: /* Background */

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Signed number representations

2014-02-03T22:32:16Z

152.17.129.116: /* Signed magnitude representation */

{{refimprove|date=September 2012}}
[[File:Radiodrome-simple-y-bw.png|thumb|100px|right|Simple pursuit curve]]
[[Image:Radiodrome-params-colour.png|thumb|250px|right|Curves of pursuit with different parameters]]
A '''curve of pursuit''' is a [[curve]] constructed by analogy to having a [[point (geometry)|point]] or points representing pursuers and pursuees; the curve of pursuit is the curve traced by the pursuers.

With the paths of the pursuer and pursuee parameterized in time, the pursuee is always on the pursuer's [[tangent]]. That is, given ''F''(''t'') the pursuer (follower) and ''L''(''t'') the pursuee (leader), there is for every ''t'' with ''F''′(''t'') ≠ 0 an ''x'' such that

:<math>L(t)=F(t)+xF^\prime(t). \, </math>

==Multiple pursuers==
[[Image:Four point pursuit curve.gif|thumb|left|baseline|150px|animation|Curve of pursuit of [[vertex (geometry)|vertices]] of a square (the [[mice problem]] for n=4).]]
Typical drawings of curves of pursuit have each point acting as both pursuer and pursuee, inside a [[polygon]], and having each pursuer pursue the adjacent point on the polygon. An example of this is the [[mice problem]].
{{-}}

== See also ==

*[[Radiodrome]]
*[[Logarithmic spiral]]
*[[Tractrix]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Curve of pursuit}}
*[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PursuitCurve.html Mathworld], with a slightly narrower definition that |''L''′(''t'')| and |''F''′(''t'')| are constant
*[http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Curves/Pursuit.html MacTutor Pursuit curve]

{{Differential transforms of plane curves}}

[[Category:Curves]]

{{geometry-stub}}

Ramanujan's congruences

2014-01-27T23:26:24Z

152.17.118.47: Fixed a typo in the definition of P_l(b;z)

{{infobox graph
| name = Hypercube graph
| image = [[Image:Hypercubestar.svg|200px]]
| image_caption = The hypercube graph ''Q''4
| vertices = 2''n''
| edges = 2''n''−1''n''
| automorphisms = ''n''! 2''n''
| chromatic_number = 2
| chromatic_index =
| girth = 4 if ''n''≥2
| diameter = ''n''
| spectrum = <math>\{(n - 2 k)^{\binom{n}{k}}; k = 0, \ldots, n\}</math>
| properties = [[Symmetric graph|Symmetric]] [[Distance regular graph|Distance regular]] [[Unit distance graph|Unit distance]] [[Hamiltonian graph|Hamiltonian]] [[Bipartite graph|Bipartite]]
| notation = ''Qn''
}}
In [[graph theory]], the '''hypercube graph''' ''Qn'' is a [[regular graph]] with 2''n'' [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]], 2''n''−1''n'' edges, and ''n'' edges touching each vertex. It can be obtained as the one-dimensional [[skeleton (topology)|skeleton]] of the geometric [[hypercube]]; for instance, ''Q''3 is the graph formed by the 8 vertices and 12 edges of a three-dimensional cube. Alternatively, it can be obtained from the family of [[subsets]] of a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] with ''n'' elements, by making a vertex for each possible subset and joining two vertices by an edge whenever the corresponding subsets differ in a single element.

Hypercube graphs should not be confused with [[cubic graph]]s, which are graphs that have exactly three edges touching each vertex. The only hypercube that is a cubic graph is ''Q''3.

== Construction ==
[[File:Hypercubeconstruction.png|thumb|left|241px|Construction of ''Q''3 by connecting pairs of corresponding vertices in two copies of ''Q''2]]
The hypercube graph ''Q''''n'' may be constructed from the family of [[subsets]] of a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] with ''n'' elements, by making a vertex for each possible subset and joining two vertices by an edge whenever the corresponding subsets differ in a single element. Equivalently, it may be constructed using 2''n'' vertices labeled with ''n''-bit [[binary number]]s and connecting two vertices by an edge whenever the [[Hamming distance]] of their labels is 1. These two constructions are closely related: a binary number may be interpreted as a set (the set of positions where it has a 1 digit), and two such sets differ in a single element whenever the corresponding two binary numbers have Hamming distance 1.

Alternatively, ''Q''n+1 may be constructed from the [[disjoint union]] of two hypercubes ''Q''n, by adding an edge from each vertex in one copy of ''Q''n to the corresponding vertex in the other copy, as shown in the figure. The joining edges form a [[perfect matching]].

Another definition of ''Q''''n'' is the [[Cartesian product of graphs|Cartesian product]] of ''n'' two-vertex complete graphs ''K''2.

== Examples ==
The graph ''Q''0 consists of a single vertex, while ''Q''1 is the [[complete graph]] on two vertices and ''Q''2 is a [[cycle (graph theory)|cycle]] of length 4.

The graph ''Q''3 is the [[n-skeleton|1-skeleton]] of a [[cube]], a planar graph with eight [[Vertex (geometry)|vertices]] and twelve [[Edge (geometry)|edges]].

The graph ''Q''4 is the [[Levi graph]] of the [[Möbius configuration]].

== Properties ==
===Bipartiteness===
Every hypercube graph is [[bipartite graph|bipartite]]: it can be [[graph coloring|colored]] with only two colors. The two colors of this coloring may be found from the subset construction of hypercube graphs, by giving one color to the subsets that have an even number of elements and the other color to the subsets with an odd number of elements.

=== Hamiltonicity ===
Every hypercube ''Q''''n'' with ''n'' > 1 has a [[Hamiltonian path|Hamiltonian cycle]], a cycle that visits each vertex exactly once. Additionally, a [[Hamiltonian path]] exists between two vertices ''u,v'' if and only if have different colors in a 2-coloring of the graph. Both facts are easy to prove using the principle of [[mathematical induction|induction]] on the dimension of the hypercube, and the construction of the hypercube graph by joining two smaller hypercubes with a matching.

Hamiltonicity of the hypercube is tightly related to the theory of [[Gray codes]]. More precisely there is a [[bijection|bijective]] correspondence between the set of ''n''-bit cyclic Gray codes and the set of Hamiltonian cycles in the hypercube ''Q''n.<ref>{{citation
| title = Some complete cycles on the n-cube
| last = Mills | first = W. H.
| journal = Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society
| year = 1963
| pages = 640–643
| doi = 10.2307/2034292
| volume = 14
| issue = 4
| publisher = American Mathematical Society
| jstor = 2034292}}.</ref> An analogous property holds for acyclic ''n''-bit Gray codes and Hamiltonian paths.

A lesser known fact is that every perfect matching in the hypercube extends to a Hamiltonian cycle.<ref>{{citation|first=J.|last=Fink|title=Perfect matchings extend to Hamiltonian cycles in hypercubes|journal=Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series B|volume=97|year=2007|pages=1074–1076|doi=10.1016/j.jctb.2007.02.007|issue=6}}.</ref> The question whether every matching extends to a Hamiltonian cycle remains an open problem.<ref>Ruskey, F. and [[Carla Savage|Savage, C.]] [http://garden.irmacs.sfu.ca/?q=op/matchings_extends_to_hamilton_cycles_in_hypercubes Matchings extend to Hamiltonian cycles in hypercubes] on Open Problem Garden. 2007.</ref>

=== Other properties ===
The hypercube graph ''Q''''n'' (n > 1) :

* is the [[Hasse diagram]] of a finite [[Boolean algebra (structure)|Boolean algebra]].

* is a [[median graph]]. Every median graph is an [[partial cube|isometric subgraph of a hypercube]], and can be formed as a retraction of a hypercube.

* has more than 22n-2 perfect matchings. (this is another consequence that follows easily from the inductive construction.)

* is [[Arc-transitive graph|arc transitive]] and [[Symmetric graph|symmetric]]. The symmetries of hypercube graphs can be represented as [[Wreath product|signed permutations]].

* contains all the cycles of length 4, 6, ..., 2''n'' and is thus a [[Pancyclic graph|bipancyclic graph]].

* can be [[Graph drawing|drawn]] as a [[unit distance graph]] in the Euclidean plane by choosing a [[unit vector]] for each set element and placing each vertex corresponding to a set ''S'' at the sum of the vectors in ''S''.

* is a [[k-vertex-connected graph|''n''-vertex-connected graph]], by [[Balinski's theorem]]

* is [[planar graph|planar]] (can be [[graph drawing|drawn]] with no crossings) if and only if '''n''' ≤ 3. For larger values of ''n'', the hypercube has [[Genus (mathematics)|genus]] <math>(n-4)2^{n-3}+1</math>.<ref name="ringel">{{citation
| last1 = Ringel | first1 = G. | author1-link = Gerhard Ringel
| journal =
Abh. Math. Sere. Univ. Hamburg| mr = 949280
| pages = 10-19
| title =
ber drei kombinatorische Probleme am n-dimensionalen Wiirfel und Wiirfelgitter| volume = 20
| year = 1955}}</ref><ref name="hhw">{{citation
| last1 = Harary | first1 = Frank | author1-link = Frank Harary
| last2 = Hayes | first2 = John P.
| last3 = Wu | first3 = Horng-Jyh
| doi = 10.1016/0898-1221(88)90213-1
| issue = 4
| journal = Computers & Mathematics with Applications
| mr = 949280
| pages = 277–289
| title = A survey of the theory of hypercube graphs
| volume = 15
| year = 1988}}.</ref>

* has exactly <math>2^{2^n-n-1}\prod_{k=2}^n k^{{n\choose k}}</math> [[spanning tree]]s.<ref name="hhw"/>

* The family ''Q''''n'' (n > 1) is a [[Lévy family of graphs]]

* The [[Complete coloring|achromatic number]] of ''Q''''n'' is known to be proportional to <math>\sqrt{n2^n}</math>, but the constant of proportionality is not known precisely.<ref>{{citation|last=Roichman|first=Y.|title= On the Achromatic Number of Hypercubes|journal=Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series B|volume=79|issue=2|year=2000|pages=177–182|doi=10.1006/jctb.2000.1955}}.</ref>

* The [[graph bandwidth|bandwidth]] of ''Q''''n'' is exactly <math>\sum_{i=0}^n \binom{n}{\lfloor n/2\rfloor}</math>.<ref>Optimal Numberings and Isoperimetric Problems on Graphs, L.H. Harper, [[Journal of Combinatorial Theory]], 1, 385–393, {{doi|10.1016/S0021-9800(66)80059-5}} </ref>

* The eigenvalues of the adjacency matrix are (-n,-n+2,-n+4,...,n-4,n-2,n) and the eigenvalues of its Laplacian are (0,2,...,2n). The k-th eigenvalue has multiplicity <math>\binom{n}{k}</math> in both cases.

* The [[Expander graph| isoperimetric number]] is h(G)=1

== Problems ==
The problem of finding the [[longest path]] or cycle that is an [[induced subgraph]] of a given hypercube graph is known as the [[snake-in-the-box]] problem.

[[Szymanski's conjecture]] concerns the suitability of a hypercube as an [[network topology]] for communications. It states that, no matter how one chooses a [[permutation]] connecting each hypercube vertex to another vertex with which it should be connected, there is always a way to connect these pairs of vertices by [[path (graph theory)|paths]] that do not share any directed edge.<ref>{{citation
| last = Szymanski | first = Ted H.
| contribution = On the Permutation Capability of a Circuit-Switched Hypercube
| location = Silver Spring, MD
| pages = 103–110
| publisher = IEEE Computer Society Press
| title = Proc. Internat. Conf. on Parallel Processing
| volume = 1
| year = 1989}}.</ref>

== See also ==
{{commonscat|Hypercube graphs}}
* [[Cube-connected cycles]]
* [[Fibonacci cube]]
* [[Folded cube graph]]
* [[Halved cube graph]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* {{citation
| title = A survey of the theory of hypercube graphs
| authorlink1 = Frank Harary | last1 = Harary | first1 = F.
| last2 = Hayes | first2 = J. P. | last3 = Wu | first3 = H.-J.
| journal = Computers & Mathematics with Applications
| volume = 15
| issue = 4
| pages = 277–289
| year = 1988
| doi = 10.1016/0898-1221(88)90213-1}}.

[[Category:Parametric families of graphs]]
[[Category:Regular graphs]]

{{Link GA|fr}}