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		<updated>2015-01-07T21:33:11Z</updated>

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		<title>Bézout&#039;s theorem</title>
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		<updated>2014-12-20T22:53:07Z</updated>

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		<title>Slowly varying envelope approximation</title>
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		<updated>2014-12-02T06:46:50Z</updated>

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		<title>Bussgang theorem</title>
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		<updated>2014-04-18T06:03:31Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;128.12.245.5: /* Statement of the theorem */&lt;/p&gt;
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		<title>Data assimilation</title>
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		<updated>2014-03-03T05:23:21Z</updated>

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		<id>https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Emissivity&amp;diff=235022</id>
		<title>Emissivity</title>
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		<updated>2014-02-19T14:07:48Z</updated>

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		<author><name>128.12.228.37</name></author>
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		<title>Table of thermodynamic equations</title>
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		<updated>2014-02-18T19:49:05Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;128.12.91.116: /* Ideal gas */ Entropy terms were missing &amp;#039;n&amp;#039;&lt;/p&gt;
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		<title>Cyano radical</title>
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		<updated>2014-02-16T10:28:49Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;128.12.91.116: /* Physical Properties */ Improving wording&lt;/p&gt;
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		<title>Linear matrix inequality</title>
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		<updated>2014-02-07T22:45:06Z</updated>

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		<updated>2013-11-12T03:06:17Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;128.12.252.4: /* Calculating a surface normal */&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;div&gt;{{more footnotes|date=December 2012}}&lt;br /&gt;
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{{redirect|Filter theory|the theory on mate selection|Filter theory (sociology)}}&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;Filter design&#039;&#039;&#039; is the process of designing a [[Filter (signal processing)|signal processing filter]] that satisfies a set of requirements, some of which are contradictory.  The purpose is to find a realization of the filter that meets each of the requirements to a sufficient degree to make it useful.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The filter design process can be described as an optimization problem where each requirement contributes with a term to an error function which should be minimized.  Certain parts of the design process can be automated, but normally an experienced electrical engineer is needed to get a good result.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Typical design requirements ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typical requirements which are considered in the design process are:&lt;br /&gt;
* The filter should have a specific [[frequency response]]&lt;br /&gt;
* The filter should have a specific [[phase shift]] or [[group delay]]&lt;br /&gt;
* The filter should have a specific [[impulse response]]&lt;br /&gt;
* The filter should be [[Causal filter|causal]]&lt;br /&gt;
* The filter should be [[BIBO stability|stable]]&lt;br /&gt;
* The filter should be localized&lt;br /&gt;
* The computational complexity of the filter should be low&lt;br /&gt;
* The filter should be implemented in particular hardware or software&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== The frequency function ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Typical examples of frequency function are:&lt;br /&gt;
* A [[low-pass filter]] is used to cut unwanted high-frequency signals.&lt;br /&gt;
* A [[high-pass filter]] passes high frequencies fairly well; it is helpful as a filter to cut any unwanted low frequency components.&lt;br /&gt;
* A [[band-pass filter]] passes a limited range of frequencies.&lt;br /&gt;
* A [[band-stop filter]] passes frequencies above and below a certain range.  A very narrow band-stop filter is known as a notch filter.&lt;br /&gt;
* A [[differentiator]] has an amplitude response proportional to the frequency.&lt;br /&gt;
* A low-shelf filter passes all frequencies, but increases or reduces frequencies below the shelf frequency by specified amount.&lt;br /&gt;
* A high-shelf filter passes all frequencies, but increases or reduces frequencies above the shelf frequency by specified amount.&lt;br /&gt;
* A peak EQ filter makes a peak or a dip in the frequency response, commonly used in [[Equalization|parametric equalizers]].&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An important [[parameter]] is the required [[frequency response]].&lt;br /&gt;
In particular, the steepness and complexity of the response curve is a deciding factor for the filter order and feasibility.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A first order [[Infinite impulse response|recursive]] filter will only have a single frequency-dependent component. This means that the [[slope]] of the frequency response is limited to 6 [[Decibel|dB]] per [[octave]]. For many purposes, this is not sufficient. To achieve steeper slopes, higher order filters are required.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In relation to the desired frequency function, there may also be an accompanying &#039;&#039;weighting&#039;&#039; function which describes, for each frequency, how important it is that the resulting frequency function approximates the desired one.  The larger weight, the more important is a close approximation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Phase and group delay ===&lt;br /&gt;
* An all-pass filter passes through all frequencies unchanged, but changes the phase of the signal. Filters of this type can be used to equalize the group delay of recursive filters.  This filter is also used in [[Phaser (effect)|phaser effects]].&lt;br /&gt;
* A [[Hilbert transform]]er is a specific all-pass filter that passes sinusoids with unchanged amplitude but shifts each sinusoid phase by ±90°.&lt;br /&gt;
* A fractional delay filter is an all-pass that has a specified and constant group or phase delay for all frequencies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== The impulse response ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
There is a direct correspondence between the filter&#039;s frequency function and its impulse response: the former is the [[Fourier transform]] of the latter.  That means that any requirement on the frequency function is a requirement on the impulse response, and vice versa.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
However, in certain applications it may be the filter&#039;s impulse response that is explicit and the design process then aims at producing as close an approximation as possible to the requested impulse response given all other requirements.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In some cases it may even be relevant to consider a frequency function and impulse response of the filter which are chosen independently from each other.  For example, we may want both a specific frequency function of the filter &#039;&#039;and&#039;&#039; that the resulting filter have a small effective width in the signal domain as possible.  The latter condition can be realized by considering a very narrow function as the wanted impulse response of the filter even though this function has no relation to the desired frequency function.  The goal of the design process is then to realize a filter which tries to meet both these contradicting design goals as much as possible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Causality ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In order to be implementable, any time-dependent filter (operating in real time) must be [[Causal filter|causal]]: the filter response only depends on the current and past inputs.  A standard approach is to leave this requirement until the final step.  If the resulting filter is not causal, it can be made causal by introducing an appropriate time-shift (or delay).  If the filter is a part of a larger system (which it normally is) these types of delays have to be introduced with care since they affect the operation of the entire system.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Filter that do not operate in real time (e.g. for image processing) can be non-causal. This e.g. allows the design of zero delay recursive filter, where the group delay of a causal filter is canceled by its Hermitian non-causal filter.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Stability ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A [[BIBO stability|stable filter]] assures that every limited input signal produces a limited filter response.  A filter which does not meet this requirement may in some situations prove useless or even harmful.  Certain design approaches can guarantee stability, for example by using only feed-forward circuits such as an FIR filter.  On the other hand, filter based on feedback circuits have other advantages and may therefore be preferred, even if this class of filters include unstable filters.  In this case, the filters must be carefully designed in order to avoid instability.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Locality ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In certain applications we have to deal with signals which contain components which can be described as local phenomena, for example pulses or steps, which have certain time duration.  A consequence of applying a filter to a signal is, in intuitive terms, that the duration of the local phenomena is extended by the width of the filter.  This implies that it is sometimes important to keep the width of the filter&#039;s impulse response function as short as possible.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
According to the uncertainty relation of the Fourier transform, the product of the width of the filter&#039;s impulse response function and the width of its frequency function must exceed a certain constant.  This means that any requirement on the filter&#039;s locality also implies a bound on its frequency function&#039;s width.  Consequently, it may not be possible to simultaneously meet requirements on the locality of the filter&#039;s impulse response function as well as on its frequency function.  This is a typical example of contradicting requirements.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Computational complexity ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A general desire in any design is that the number of operations (additions and multiplications) needed to compute the filter response is as low as possible.  In certain applications, this desire is a strict requirement, for example due to limited computational resources, limited power resources, or limited time.  The last limitation is typical in real-time applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
There are several ways in which a filter can have different computational complexity.  For example, the order of a filter is more or less proportional to the number of operations.  This means that by choosing a low order filter, the computation time can be reduced.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For discrete filters the computational complexity is more or less proportional to the number of filter coefficients.  If the filter has many coefficients, for example in the case of multidimensional signals such as tomography data, it may be relevant to reduce the number of coefficients by removing those which are sufficiently close to zero. In multirate filters, the number of coefficients by taking advantage of its bandwidth limits, where the input signal is downsampled (e.g. to its critical frequency), and upsampled after filtering.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Another issue related to computational complexity is separability, that is, if and how a filter can be written as a convolution of two or more simpler filters.  In particular, this issue is of importance for multidimensional filters, e.g., 2D filter which are used in image processing.  In this case, a significant reduction in computational complexity can be obtained if the filter can be separated as the convolution of one 1D filter in the horizontal direction and one 1D filter in the vertical direction.  A result of the filter design process may, e.g., be to approximate some desired filter as a separable filter or as a sum of separable filters.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Other considerations ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It must also be decided how the filter is going to be implemented:&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Analog filter]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Analog sampled filter]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Digital filter]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Mechanical filter]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Analog filters ====&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The design of linear analog filters is for the most part covered in the [[linear filter]] section.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Digital filters ====&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Digital filter]]s are classified into one of two basic forms, according to how they respond to a [[Kronecker delta|unit impulse]]:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Finite impulse response]], or &#039;&#039;&#039;FIR&#039;&#039;&#039;, filters express each output sample as a weighted sum of the last &#039;&#039;N&#039;&#039; input samples, where &#039;&#039;N&#039;&#039; is the order of the filter.  FIR filters are normally non-recursive, meaning they do not use feedback and as such are inherently stable.  A [[moving average]] filter or [[CIC filter]] are examples of FIR filters that are normally recursive (that use feedback).  If the FIR coefficients are symmetrical (often the case), then such a filter is [[linear phase]], so it [[Group delay|delays]] signals of all frequencies equally which is important in many applications.  It is also straightforward to avoid overflow in an FIR filter.  The main disadvantage is that they may require significantly more [[Instructions per second|processing]] and [[computer memory|memory]] resources than cleverly designed IIR variants. FIR filters are generally easier to design than IIR filters - the [[Parks-McClellan filter design algorithm]] (based on the [[Remez algorithm]]) is one suitable method for designing quite good filters semi-automatically.  (See [[#Methodology|Methodology]].)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Infinite impulse response]], or &#039;&#039;&#039;IIR&#039;&#039;&#039;, filters are the digital counterpart to analog filters.  Such a filter contains internal state, and the output and the next internal state are determined by a [[linear combination]] of the previous inputs and outputs (in other words, they use [[feedback]], which FIR filters normally do not).  In theory, the impulse response of such a filter never dies out completely, hence the name IIR, though in practice, this is not true given the finite resolution of computer arithmetic.  IIR filters normally require less [[computing]] resources than an FIR filter of similar performance.  However, due to the feedback, high order IIR filters may have problems with [[instability]], [[arithmetic overflow]], and [[limit cycle]]s, and require careful design to avoid such pitfalls.  Additionally, since the [[Phase (waves)|phase shift]] is inherently a non-linear  function of frequency, the time delay through such a filter is frequency-dependent, which can be a problem in many situations.  2nd order IIR filters are often called &#039;[[Digital biquad filter|biquads]]&#039; and a common implementation of higher order filters is to cascade biquads. A useful reference for computing biquad coefficients is the [http://www.musicdsp.org/files/Audio-EQ-Cookbook.txt RBJ Audio EQ Cookbook].&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Sample rate ====&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unless the [[sample rate]] is fixed by some outside constraint, selecting a suitable sample rate is an important design decision. A high rate will require more in terms of computational resources, but less in terms of [[anti-aliasing filter]]s. [[Interference (wave propagation)|Interference]] and [[Beat (acoustics)|beating]] with other signals in the system may also be an issue.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Anti-aliasing ====&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For any digital filter design, it is crucial to analyze and avoid [[aliasing]] effects. Often, this is done by adding analog anti-aliasing filters at the input and output, thus avoiding any frequency component above the [[Nyquist frequency]]. The complexity (i.e., steepness) of such filters depends on the required [[signal to noise ratio]] and  the ratio between the [[sampling rate]] and the highest frequency of the signal.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Theoretical basis ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Parts of the design problem relate to the fact that certain requirements are described in the frequency domain while others are expressed in the signal domain and that these may contradict.  For example, it is not possible to obtain a filter which has both an arbitrary impulse response and arbitrary frequency function.  Other effects which refer to relations between the signal and frequency domain are&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* The uncertainty principle between the signal and frequency domains&lt;br /&gt;
* The variance extension theorem&lt;br /&gt;
* The asymptotic behaviour of one domain versus discontinuities in the other&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== The uncertainty principle ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As stated in the [[uncertainty principle]], the product of the width of the frequency function and the width of the impulse response cannot be smaller than a specific constant.  This implies that if a specific frequency function is requested, corresponding to a specific frequency width, the minimum width of the filter in the signal domain is set.  Vice versa, if the maximum width of the response is given, this determines the smallest possible width in the frequency.&lt;br /&gt;
This is a typical example of contradictory requirements where the filter design process may try to find a useful compromise.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== The variance extension theorem ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Let &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\sigma^{2}_{s}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; be the variance of the input signal and let &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\sigma^{2}_{f}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; be the variance of the filter.  The variance of the filter response, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\sigma^{2}_{r}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, is then given by&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
: &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\sigma^{2}_{r}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; = &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\sigma^{2}_{s}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; + &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\sigma^{2}_{f}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means that &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\sigma_{r} &amp;gt; \sigma_{f}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and implies that the localization of various features such as pulses or steps in the filter response is limited by the filter width in the signal domain.  If a precise localization is requested, we need a filter of small width in the signal domain and, via the uncertainty principle, its width in the frequency domain cannot be arbitrary small.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Discontinuities versus asymptotic behaviour ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Let &#039;&#039;f(t)&#039;&#039; be a function and let &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F(\omega)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; be its Fourier transform.&lt;br /&gt;
There is a theorem which states that if the first derivative of &#039;&#039;F&#039;&#039; which is discontinuous has order &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n \geq 0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, then &#039;&#039;f&#039;&#039; has an asymptotic decay like &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;t^{-n-1}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A consequence of this theorem is that the frequency function of a filter should be as smooth as possible to allow its impulse response to have a fast decay, and thereby a short width.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Methodology ==&lt;br /&gt;
One common method for designing FIR filters is the [[Parks-McClellan filter design algorithm]], based on the [[Remez exchange algorithm]].  Here the user specifies a desired frequency response, a weighting function for errors from this response, and a filter order &#039;&#039;N&#039;&#039;.  The algorithm then finds the set of &#039;&#039;N&#039;&#039; coefficients that minimize the maximum deviation from the ideal.  Intuitively, this finds the filter that is as close as you can get to the desired response given that you can use only &#039;&#039;N&#039;&#039; coefficients.  This method is particularly easy in practice and at least one text&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Rabiner, Lawrence R., and Gold, Bernard, 1975: Theory and Application of Digital Signal Processing (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.)  ISBN 0-13-914101-4&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; includes a program that takes the desired filter and &#039;&#039;N&#039;&#039; and returns the optimum coefficients.  One possible drawback to filters designed this way is that they contain many small ripples in the passband(s), since such a filter minimizes the peak error.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Another method to finding a discrete FIR filter is &#039;&#039;filter optimization&#039;&#039; described in Knutsson et al., which minimizes the integral of the square of the error, instead of its maximum value.  In its basic form this approach requires that an ideal frequency function of the filter &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{I}(\omega)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is specified together with a frequency weighting function &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;W(\omega)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and set of coordinates &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;x_{k}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the signal domain where the filter coefficients are located.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An error function &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\varepsilon&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is defined as&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\varepsilon = \| W \cdot (F_{I} - \mathcal{F} \{ f \}) \|^{2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f(x)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the discrete filter and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathcal{F}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the [[discrete-time Fourier transform]] defined on the specified set of coordinates.  The norm used here is, formally, the usual norm on &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;L^{2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; spaces.  This means that &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\varepsilon&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; measures the deviation between the requested frequency function of the filter, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{I}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, and the actual frequency function of the realized filter, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathcal{F} \{ f \}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.  However, the deviation is also subject to the weighting function &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;W&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; before the error function is computed.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Once the error function is established, the optimal filter is given by the coefficients &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f(x)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; which minimize &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\varepsilon&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.  This can be done by solving the corresponding least squares problem. In practice, the &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;L^{2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; norm has to be approximated by means of a suitable sum over discrete points in the frequency domain.  In general, however, these points should be significantly more than the number of coefficients in the signal domain to obtain a useful approximation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Simultaneous optimization in both domains ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The previous method can be extended to include an additional error term related to a desired filter impulse response in the signal domain, with a corresponding weighting function.  The ideal impulse response can be chosen independently of the ideal frequency function and is in practice used to limit the effective width and to remove ringing effects of the resulting filter in the signal domain.  This is done by choosing a narrow ideal filter impulse response function, e.g., an impulse, and a weighting function which grows fast with the distance from the origin, e.g., the distance squared.  The optimal filter can still be calculated by solving a simple least squares problem and the resulting filter is then a &amp;quot;compromise&amp;quot; which has a total optimal fit to the ideal functions in both domains.  An important parameter is the relative strength of the two weighting functions which determines in which domain it is more important to have a good fit relative to the ideal function.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== See also ==&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Digital filter]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Prototype filter]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Finite impulse response#Filter design]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Reflist}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite book|&lt;br /&gt;
author=A. Antoniou|&lt;br /&gt;
title=Digital Filters: Analysis, Design, and Applications|&lt;br /&gt;
edition=2|&lt;br /&gt;
year=1993|&lt;br /&gt;
isbn=0-07-002117-1|&lt;br /&gt;
publisher=McGraw-Hill, New York, NY}}&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite book|&lt;br /&gt;
author=A. Antoniou|&lt;br /&gt;
title=Digital Signal Processing: Signals, Systems, and Filters|&lt;br /&gt;
year=2006|&lt;br /&gt;
isbn=0-07-145424-1|&lt;br /&gt;
doi=10.1036/0071454241|&lt;br /&gt;
publisher=McGraw-Hill, New York, NY}}&lt;br /&gt;
* {{cite journal|&lt;br /&gt;
author=S.W.A. Bergen and A. Antoniou|&lt;br /&gt;
title=Design of Nonrecursive Digital Filters Using the Ultraspherical Window Function|&lt;br /&gt;
journal=EURASIP Journal on Applied Signal Processing|&lt;br /&gt;
year=2005|&lt;br /&gt;
volume=2005|&lt;br /&gt;
issue=12|&lt;br /&gt;
page=1910|&lt;br /&gt;
doi=10.1155/ASP.2005.1910&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
* {{cite journal|&lt;br /&gt;
author=A.G. Deczky|&lt;br /&gt;
title=Synthesis of Recursive Digital Filters Using the Minimum p-Error Criterion|&lt;br /&gt;
journal=IEEE Trans. Audio Electroacoust|&lt;br /&gt;
volume=AU-20|&lt;br /&gt;
issue=4|&lt;br /&gt;
pages=257–263|date=October 1972|&lt;br /&gt;
doi=10.1109/TAU.1972.1162392&lt;br /&gt;
|url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search/wrapper.jsp?arnumber=1162392}}&lt;br /&gt;
* {{cite conference|&lt;br /&gt;
author=J.K. Kaiser|&lt;br /&gt;
title=Nonrecursive Digital Filter Design Using the &#039;&#039;I&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;0&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;-sinh Window Function|&lt;br /&gt;
booktitle=Proc. 1974 IEEE Int. Symp. Circuit Theory (ISCAS74)|&lt;br /&gt;
pages=20–23|&lt;br /&gt;
location=San Francisco, CA|&lt;br /&gt;
year=1974}}&lt;br /&gt;
* {{cite conference|&lt;br /&gt;
author=H. Knutsson, M. Andersson and J. Wiklund|&lt;br /&gt;
title=Advanced Filter Design|&lt;br /&gt;
booktitle=Proc. Scandinavian Symposium on Image Analysis, Kangerlussuaq, Greenland|date=June 1999}}&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite book|&lt;br /&gt;
author=S.K. Mitra|&lt;br /&gt;
title=Digital Signal Processing: A Computer-Based Approach|&lt;br /&gt;
year=1998|&lt;br /&gt;
isbn=0-07-286546-6|&lt;br /&gt;
publisher=McGraw-Hill, New York, NY}}&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite book|&lt;br /&gt;
author=A.V. Oppenheim and R.W. Schafer and J.R. Buck|&lt;br /&gt;
title=Discrete-Time Signal Processing|&lt;br /&gt;
year=1999|&lt;br /&gt;
isbn=0-13-754920-2|&lt;br /&gt;
publisher=Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ}}&lt;br /&gt;
* {{cite journal|&lt;br /&gt;
author=T.W. Parks and J.H. McClellan|&lt;br /&gt;
title=Chebyshev Approximation for Nonrecursive Digital Filters with Linear Phase|&lt;br /&gt;
journal=IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory|&lt;br /&gt;
volume=CT-19|&lt;br /&gt;
issue=2|&lt;br /&gt;
pages=189–194|date=March 1972|&lt;br /&gt;
doi=10.1109/TCT.1972.1083419&lt;br /&gt;
|url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search/wrapper.jsp?arnumber=1083419}}&lt;br /&gt;
* {{cite journal|&lt;br /&gt;
author=L.R. Rabiner, J.H. McClellan, and T.W. Parks|&lt;br /&gt;
title=FIR Digital Filter Design Techniques Using Weighted Chebyshev Approximation|&lt;br /&gt;
journal=Proc. IEEE|&lt;br /&gt;
volume=63|&lt;br /&gt;
issue=4|&lt;br /&gt;
pages=595–610|date=April 1975|&lt;br /&gt;
doi=10.1109/PROC.1975.9794&lt;br /&gt;
|url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search/wrapper.jsp?arnumber=1451724}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== External links ==&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.circuitsage.com/filter.html An extensive list of filter design articles and software at Circuit Sage]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.dspguru.com/dsp/links/digital-filter-design-software A list of digital filter design software at dspGuru]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/1795/CMP/AN-1 Analog Filter Design Demystified]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.student.oulu.fi/~oniemita/dsp/dspstuff.txt  Yehar&#039;s digital sound processing tutorial for the braindead!] This paper explains simply (between others topics) filters design theory and give some examples&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Digital signal processing]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Filter theory]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Signal processing filter]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>128.12.252.4</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Minimax_Condorcet&amp;diff=10265</id>
		<title>Minimax Condorcet</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Minimax_Condorcet&amp;diff=10265"/>
		<updated>2013-11-06T04:05:14Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;128.12.253.4: Made short description at the top much clearer. The explanation below still explains in great detail.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{Inadequate lead|date=March 2013}}&lt;br /&gt;
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2011}}&lt;br /&gt;
The theory of &#039;&#039;&#039;association schemes&#039;&#039;&#039; arose in statistics, in the theory of [[design of experiments|experimental design]] for the [[analysis of variance]].&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;{{harvnb|Bailey|2004|loc=pg. 387}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;{{harvnb|Bose|Mesner|1959}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;{{harvnb|Bose|Nair|1939}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; In [[mathematics]], association schemes belong to both [[algebra]] and [[combinatorics]]. Indeed, in [[algebraic combinatorics]], association schemes provide a unified approach to many topics, for example [[combinatorial design]]s and [[coding theory]].&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;{{harvnb|Bannai|Ito|1984}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;{{harvnb|Godsil|1993}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; In algebra, association schemes generalize [[group (mathematics)|group]]s, and the theory of association schemes generalizes the [[group character|character theory]] of [[group representation|linear representations]] of groups.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;{{harvnb|Bailey|2004|loc=pg. 387}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;{{harvnb|Zieschang|2005b}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;{{harvnb|Zieschang|2005a}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Definition==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An n-class association scheme consists of a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] &#039;&#039;X&#039;&#039;  together with a [[partition of a set|partition]] &#039;&#039;S&#039;&#039; of &#039;&#039;X&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;times; &#039;&#039;X&#039;&#039; into n + 1 [[binary relation]]s, R&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;0&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;, R&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;1&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;, ..., R&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;  which satisfy:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R_{0}=\{(x,x):x\in X\}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and is called the [[Identity relation]]. &lt;br /&gt;
*Defining &amp;lt;math&amp;gt; R^* :=\{(x,y) | (y,x)\in R\}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, if &#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039; in &#039;&#039;S&#039;&#039;, then &#039;&#039;R*&#039;&#039; in &#039;&#039;S&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*If &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;(x,y)\in R_{k}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the number of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z\in X&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; such that &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;(x,z)\in R_{i}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;(z,y)\in R_{j}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is a constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;p^k_{ij}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; depending on &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;i&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;j&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; but not on the particular choice of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;x&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;y&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An association scheme is &#039;&#039;commutative&#039;&#039; if &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;p_{ij}^k=p_{ji}^k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; for all &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;i&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;j&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Most authors assume this property.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A &#039;&#039;symmetric&#039;&#039; association scheme is one in which each relation &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R_i&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is a [[symmetric relation]]. That is:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* if (&#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039;,&#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039;)  ∈ &#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;, then (&#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039;,&#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039;) ∈ &#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; . (Or equivalently, &#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;* = &#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Every symmetric association scheme is commutative.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note, however, that while the notion of an association scheme generalizes the notion of a group, the notion of a commutative association scheme only generalizes the notion of a commutative group.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two points &#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039; are called &#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;th&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; associates if &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;(x,y)\in R_{i}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. The definition states that if &#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039; are &#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;th&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; associates so are &#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039;. Every pair of points are &#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;th&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; associates for exactly one &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;i&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Each point is its own zeroth associate while distinct points are never zeroth associates. If &#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039; are &#039;&#039;k&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;th&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; associates then the number of points &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; which are both &#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;th&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; associates of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;x&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &#039;&#039;j&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;th&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; associates of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;y&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is a constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;p^k_{ij}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Graph interpretation and adjacency matrices===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An association scheme can be visualized as a [[complete graph]] with labeled edges. The graph has &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vertices, one for each point of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;X&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, and the edge joining vertices &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;x&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;y&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is labeled &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;i&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; if &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;x&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;y&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; are &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;i&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; &amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;th&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; associates. Each edge has a unique label, and the number of triangles with a fixed base labeled &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; having the other edges labeled &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;i&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;j&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is a constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;p^k_{ij}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, depending on &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;i,j,k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; but not on the choice of the base. In particular, each vertex is incident with exactly &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;p^0_{ii}=v_{i}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; edges labeled &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;i&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;; &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{i}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the [[Adjacency relation|valency]] of the [[Relation (mathematics)|relation]] &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R_{i}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. There are also loops labeled &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; at each vertex &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;x&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, corresponding to &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R_{0}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The [[Relation (mathematics)|relations]] are described by their [[Adjacency matrix|adjacency matrices]]. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;A_{i}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the [[adjacency matrix]] of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R_{i}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;i=0,\ldots,n&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and is a &#039;&#039;v&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;times; &#039;&#039;v&#039;&#039; [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] with rows and columns labeled by the points of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;X&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\left(A_{i}\right)_{x,y}=\left\{\begin{matrix} &lt;br /&gt;
1, &amp;amp; \mbox{if } \left(x,y\right)\in R_{i},\\ &lt;br /&gt;
0, &amp;amp; \mbox{otherwise.}  \end{matrix}\right. \qquad(1)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The definition of an association scheme is equivalent to saying that the &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;A_{i}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; are &#039;&#039;v&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;times; &#039;&#039;v&#039;&#039; (0,1)-[[Matrix (mathematics)|matrices]] which satisfy&lt;br /&gt;
:I. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;A_{i} \,&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is symmetric,&lt;br /&gt;
:II. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\sum_{i=0}^{n}A_{i}=J&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; (the all-ones matrix),&lt;br /&gt;
:III. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;A_{0}=I \,&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
:IV. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;A_{i}A_{j}=\sum_{k=0}^{n} p^k_{ij}A_{k}=A_{j}A_{i}, i,j=0,\ldots,n&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The (&#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039;, &#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039;)-th entry of the left side of (IV) is the number of paths of length two between &#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039; with labels i and j in the graph. Note that the rows and columns of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;A_{i}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; contain &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{i}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;1&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&#039;s:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;A_{i} J=J A_{i}=v_{i} J. \qquad(2)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Terminology===&lt;br /&gt;
*The numbers &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;p_{ij}^k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; are called the &#039;&#039;parameters&#039;&#039; of the scheme. They are also referred to as the &#039;&#039;structural constants&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==History==&lt;br /&gt;
The term &#039;&#039;association scheme&#039;&#039; is due to {{harv|Bose|Shimamoto|1952}} but the concept is already inherent in {{harv|Bose|Nair|1939}}.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;{{harvnb|Dembowski|1968|loc=pg. 281, footnote 1}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; These authors were studying what statisticians have called &#039;&#039;partially balanced incomplete block designs&#039;&#039; (PBIBDs). The subject became an object of algebraic interest with the publication of {{harv|Bose|Mesner|1959}} and the introduction of the Bose–Mesner algebra. The most important contribution to the theory was the thesis of P. Delsarte {{harv|Delsarte|1973}} who recognized and fully used the connections with coding theory and design theory.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;{{harvnb|Bannai|Ito|1984|loc=pg. vii}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Generalizations have been studied by D. G. Higman (coherent configurations) and B. Weisfeiler (distance regular graphs).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Basic facts==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;p_{00}^0 = 1&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, i.e. if &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;(x,y) \in R_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; then &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;x = y&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and the only &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; such that &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;(x,z) \in R_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z=x&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\sum_{i=0}^{k} p_{ii}^0 = |X|&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, this is because the &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R_i&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; partition &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;X&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==The Bose–Mesner algebra==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The [[Adjacency matrix|adjacency matrices]] &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;A_i&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the [[Graph (mathematics)|graphs]] &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\left(X,R_{i}\right)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; generate a [[Commutativity|commutative]] and [[associative]] [[algebra]] &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathcal{A}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; (over the real or [[complex number]]s) both for the [[matrix product]] and the [[pointwise product]]. This [[Associative algebra|associative]], [[commutative algebra]] is called the [[Bose–Mesner algebra]] of the association scheme.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Since the [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrices]] in &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathcal{A}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; are [[Symmetric matrix|symmetric]] and [[Commutativity|commute]] with each other, they can be [[Diagonal matrix|diagonalized]] simultaneously. Therefore &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathcal{A}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is [[Semisimple operator|semi-simple]] and has a unique basis of primitive [[idempotent]]s &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;J_{0},\ldots,J_{n}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
There is another [[algebra]] of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\left(n+1\right)\times\left(n+1\right)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrices]] which is [[isomorphic]] to &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathcal{A}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, and is often easier to work with.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Examples==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*The [[Johnson scheme]], denoted &#039;&#039;J&#039;&#039;(&#039;&#039;v,k&#039;&#039;), is defined as follows.  Let &#039;&#039;S&#039;&#039; be a set with &#039;&#039;v&#039;&#039; elements.  The points of the scheme &#039;&#039;J&#039;&#039;(&#039;&#039;v&#039;&#039;,&#039;&#039;k&#039;&#039;) are the &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;{v \choose k}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; subsets of S with &#039;&#039;k&#039;&#039; elements.  Two &#039;&#039;k&#039;&#039;-element subsets &#039;&#039;A&#039;&#039;, &#039;&#039;B&#039;&#039; of &#039;&#039;S&#039;&#039; are &#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;th&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; associates when their intersection has size &#039;&#039;k&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;−&amp;amp;nbsp;&#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*The [[Hamming scheme]], denoted &#039;&#039;H&#039;&#039;(&#039;&#039;n&#039;&#039;,&#039;&#039;q&#039;&#039;), is defined as follows.  The points of &#039;&#039;H&#039;&#039;(&#039;&#039;n&#039;&#039;,&#039;&#039;q&#039;&#039;) are the &#039;&#039;q&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;&#039;&#039; ordered &#039;&#039;n&#039;&#039;-[[tuple]]s over a set of size &#039;&#039;q&#039;&#039;.  Two &#039;&#039;n&#039;&#039;-tuples &#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039;, &#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039; are said to be &#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;th&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; associates if they disagree in exactly &#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039; coordinates.  E.g., if &#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039; = (1,0,1,1), &#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039; = (1,1,1,1), &#039;&#039;z&#039;&#039; = (0,0,1,1), then &#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039; are 1st associates, &#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;z&#039;&#039; are 1st associates and &#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;z&#039;&#039; are 2nd associates in &#039;&#039;H(4,2)&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*A [[distance-regular graph]], &#039;&#039;G&#039;&#039;, forms an association scheme by defining two vertices to be &#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;th&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; associates if their distance is &#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*A [[finite group]] &#039;&#039;G&#039;&#039; yields an association scheme on &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;X=G&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, with a class &#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;g&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; for each group element, as follows: for each &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;g \in G&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; let &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R_g=\{(x,y)  |  x=g*y\}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;*&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the group [[operation (mathematics)|operation]].   The class of the group identity is &#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;0&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;.  This association scheme is commutative if and only if &#039;&#039;G&#039;&#039; is [[Abelian group|abelian]].&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*A specific 3-class association scheme:&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;{{harvnb|Street|Street|1987|loc=pg. 238}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
:Let &#039;&#039;A&#039;&#039;(3) be the following association scheme with three associate classes on the set &#039;&#039;X&#039;&#039; = {1,2,3,4,5,6}. The (&#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039;,&#039;&#039;j&#039;&#039;) entry is &#039;&#039;s&#039;&#039; if elements &#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;j&#039;&#039; are in relation R&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;s&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;center&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{| class=&amp;quot;wikitable&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;
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| &#039;&#039;&#039;4&#039;&#039;&#039; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:lime&amp;quot;&amp;gt; &amp;amp;nbsp;2&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:fuchsia&amp;quot;&amp;gt; &amp;amp;nbsp;3&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:fuchsia&amp;quot;&amp;gt; &amp;amp;nbsp;3&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:blue&amp;quot;&amp;gt; &amp;amp;nbsp;0&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:red&amp;quot;&amp;gt;  &amp;amp;nbsp;1&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:red&amp;quot;&amp;gt;  &amp;amp;nbsp;1&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;/span&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
|-&lt;br /&gt;
| &#039;&#039;&#039;5&#039;&#039;&#039; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:fuchsia&amp;quot;&amp;gt; &amp;amp;nbsp;3&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:lime&amp;quot;&amp;gt; &amp;amp;nbsp;2&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:fuchsia&amp;quot;&amp;gt; &amp;amp;nbsp;3&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:red&amp;quot;&amp;gt;  &amp;amp;nbsp;1&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:blue&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;amp;nbsp;0&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:red&amp;quot;&amp;gt;  &amp;amp;nbsp;1&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;/span&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
|-&lt;br /&gt;
| &#039;&#039;&#039;6&#039;&#039;&#039; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:fuchsia&amp;quot;&amp;gt; &amp;amp;nbsp;3&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:fuchsia&amp;quot;&amp;gt; &amp;amp;nbsp;3&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:lime&amp;quot;&amp;gt; &amp;amp;nbsp;2&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:red&amp;quot;&amp;gt; &amp;amp;nbsp;1&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:red&amp;quot;&amp;gt; &amp;amp;nbsp;1&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;/span&amp;gt; || &amp;lt;span style=&amp;quot;color:white; background:blue&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;amp;nbsp;0&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;/span&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
|}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/center&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Coding theory==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The [[Hamming scheme]] and the [[Johnson scheme]] are of major significance in classical [[coding theory]].&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In [[coding theory]], association scheme theory is mainly concerned with the [[Hamming distance|distance]] of a [[code]].  The [[linear programming]] method produces upper bounds for the size of a [[code]] with given minimum [[Hamming distance|distance]], and lower bounds for the size of a [[T-design|design]] with a given strength. The most specific results are obtained in the case where the underlying association scheme satisfies certain [[polynomial]] properties; this leads one into the realm of [[orthogonal polynomials]]. In particular, some universal bounds are derived for [[code]]s and [[T-design|designs]] in polynomial-type association schemes. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In classical [[coding theory]], dealing with [[code]]s in a [[Hamming scheme]], the MacWilliams transform involves a family of orthogonal polynomials known as the [[Krawtchouk polynomials]]. These polynomials give the [[eigenvalues]] of the distance relation [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrices]] of the [[Hamming scheme]].&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==See also==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;!-- * [[Analysis of variance]] (Statistics) --&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Block design]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Bose–Mesner algebra]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Combinatorial design]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Notes==&lt;br /&gt;
{{Reflist}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* {{citation| first=Rosemary A.| last=Bailey | authorlink=Rosemary A. Bailey | url=http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~rab/Asbook | title=Association Schemes: Designed Experiments, Algebra and Combinatorics|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-521-82446-0| mr=2047311}}. (Chapters from preliminary draft are [http://www.maths.qmw.ac.uk/~rab available on-line].)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* {{citation| last1=Bannai | first1=Eiichi | last2=Ito | first2=Tatsuro | title=Algebraic combinatorics I: Association schemes |  publisher=The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co., Inc. | location=Menlo Park, CA | year=1984 | pages=xxiv+425 | isbn=0-8053-0490-8 | mr=0882540 | unused_data=&amp;lt;!-- authorlink1=Eiichi Bannai | authorlink2= Tatsuro Ito --&amp;gt; }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* {{citation| last1=Bose|first1=R. C.| authorlink1=R. C. Bose| last2=Mesner|first2=D. M.|year=1959|title=On linear associative algebras corresponding to association schemes of partially balanced designs|journal=[[Annals of Mathematical Statistics]]|volume=30|issue=1|pages=21–38| url=http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.aoms/1177706356 | doi=10.1214/aoms/1177706356 | mr = 102157 | jstor = 2237117}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* {{citation| last1=Bose|first1=R.&amp;amp;nbsp;C.|authorlink1=R. C. Bose|first2= K.&amp;amp;nbsp;R.|last2= Nair|title= Partially balanced incomplete block designs|journal= [[Sankhya (journal)|Sankhyā]]|volume= 4|year=1939|pages= 337–372}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* {{citation|last=Bose|first=R.&amp;amp;nbsp;C.|last2=Shimamoto|first2=T.|title=Classification and analysis of partially balanced incomplete block designs with two associate classes|journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association|year=1952|volume=47|pages=151–184|authorlink=R. C. Bose}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* P. Camion (1998), Codes and Association Schemes: Basic Properties of Association Schemes Relevant to Coding, in &#039;&#039;Handbook of Coding Theory&#039;&#039;, V. S. Pless and W. C. Huffman, Eds., Elsevier, The Netherlands.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* {{citation|last=Delsarte |first= P.|year=1973 |title= An Algebraic Approach to the Association Schemes of Coding Theory|journal=  Philips Research Reports, Supplement No. 10}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* {{cite journal | last1 = Delsarte | first1 = P. | last2 = Levenshtein | first2 = V. I. | year = 1998 | title = Association schemes and coding theory | url = | journal = IEEE Transactions on Information Theory | volume = 44 | issue = 6| pages = 2477–2504 }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*{{citation|last=Dembowski|first=P.|title=Finite Geometry|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=Berlin|year=1968}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* {{citation|first=C. D.| last=Godsil|authorlink = Chris Godsil|title=Algebraic Combinatorics|publisher=Chapman and Hall|year=1993|location=New York|isbn=0-412-04131-6 | mr=1220704 }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* F. J. MacWilliams and N. J. A. Sloane, &#039;&#039;The Theory of Error-Correcting Codes&#039;&#039;, Elsevier, New York, 1978.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite book&lt;br /&gt;
|author=Street, Anne Penfold and Street, Deborah J.&lt;br /&gt;
|title=Combinatorics of Experimental Design&lt;br /&gt;
|publisher=Oxford U. P. [Clarendon]&lt;br /&gt;
|year=1987&lt;br /&gt;
|pages=400+xiv&lt;br /&gt;
|isbn=0-19-853256-3&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* van Lint, J.H., and Wilson, R.M. (1992), &#039;&#039;A Course in Combinatorics&#039;&#039;.  Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press.  ISBN 0-521-00601-5&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* {{citation|doi=10.1090/S0273-0979-05-01077-3|url=http://www.ams.org/bull/2006-43-02/S0273-0979-05-01077-3/S0273-0979-05-01077-3.pdf|title=&#039;&#039;Association Schemes: Designed Experiments, Algebra and Combinatorics&#039;&#039; by Rosemary A. Bailey, Review|first= Paul-Hermann|last=Zieschang|journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society|volume=43|year=2005a|issue=02|pages=249–253}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* {{citation| last=Zieschang | first=Paul-Hermann |  title=Theory of association schemes |  publisher=Springer |  year=2005b | pages=xii+283 | isbn=3-540-26136-2 }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* {{citation | last1=Zieschang | first1=Paul-Hermann | title=The exchange condition for association schemes | doi=10.1007/BF02777367 | mr=2214129 | year=2006 | journal=Israel Journal of Mathematics | issn=0021-2172 | volume=151 | issue=3 | pages=357–380}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Experimental design|state=collapsed}}&lt;br /&gt;
{{Statistics|collection|state=collapsed}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Articles with inconsistent citation formats]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Design of experiments]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Analysis of variance]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Algebraic combinatorics]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Representation theory]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;!-- [[Category:Algebra]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Combinatorics]] --&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>128.12.253.4</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Inverse_image_functor&amp;diff=15077</id>
		<title>Inverse image functor</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Inverse_image_functor&amp;diff=15077"/>
		<updated>2013-10-02T22:21:55Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;128.12.253.132: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{FeatureDetectionCompVisNavbox}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In mathematics, the &#039;&#039;&#039;structure [[tensor]]&#039;&#039;&#039;, also referred to as the &#039;&#039;&#039;second-moment matrix&#039;&#039;&#039;, is a [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] derived from the  [[gradient]] of a [[function (mathematics)|function]].  It summarizes the predominant directions of the gradient in a specified neighborhood of a point, and the degree to which those directions are coherent.  The structure tensor is often used in [[image processing]] and [[computer vision]].&amp;lt;ref name=bigun86&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
   J. Bigun and G. Granlund (1986), &#039;&#039;Optimal Orientation Detection of Linear Symmetry&#039;&#039;. Tech. Report LiTH-ISY-I-0828, Computer Vision Laboratory, Linkoping University, Sweden 1986; Thesis Report, Linkoping studies in science and technology No. 85, 1986.&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=bigun87&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite conference|author=J. Bigun and G. Granlund|title=Optimal Orientation Detection of Linear Symmetry|location=Piscataway|booktitle=First int. Conf. on Computer Vision, ICCV,  (London) |publisher=IEEE Computer Society Press, Piscataway|pages=433–438|year=1987 }}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=knutsson89&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite conference|author=H. Knutsson|title=Representing local structure using tensors|location=Oulu|booktitle=Proceedings 6th Scandinavian Conf.&lt;br /&gt;
on Image Analysis|publisher=Oulu University|pages=244–251|year=1989}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==The 2D structure tensor==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Continuous version===&lt;br /&gt;
For a function &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of two variables &#039;&#039;p&#039;&#039;=(&#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039;,&#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039;), the structure tensor is the 2×2 matrix&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
S_w(p) =&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{bmatrix}&lt;br /&gt;
\int w(r) (I_x(p-r))^2\,d r &amp;amp; \int w(r) I_x(p-r)I_y(p-r)\,d r \\[10pt]&lt;br /&gt;
\int w(r) I_x(p-r)I_y(p-r)\,d r  &amp;amp; \int w(r) (I_y(p-r))^2\,d r&lt;br /&gt;
\end{bmatrix}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_x&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_y&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; are the [[partial derivative]]s of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; with respect to &#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039;; the integrals range over the plane &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathbb{R}^2&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;; and &#039;&#039;w&#039;&#039; is some fixed &amp;quot;window function&amp;quot;, a [[distribution (mathematics)|distribution]] on two variables.   Note that the matrix &#039;&#039;S&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;w&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; is itself a function of &#039;&#039;p&#039;&#039;=(&#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039;,&#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039;).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The formula above can be written also as &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S_w(p)=\int w(r) S_0(p-r)\,d r&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the matrix-valued function defined by&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
S_0(p)=&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{bmatrix}&lt;br /&gt;
(I_x(p))^2 &amp;amp; I_x(p)I_y(p) \\[10pt]&lt;br /&gt;
I_x(p)I_y(p) &amp;amp; (I_y(p))^2&lt;br /&gt;
\end{bmatrix}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the [[gradient]] &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\nabla I = (I_x,I_y)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is viewed as a 1×2 (single-row) matrix, the matrix &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be written as the [[matrix product]] &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;(\nabla I)&#039;(\nabla I)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;(\nabla I)&#039;&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; denotes the 2×1 (single-column) [[transpose]] of the gradient.  (Note however that the structure tensor &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S_w(p)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; cannot be factored in this way.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Discrete version===&lt;br /&gt;
In image processing and other similar applications, the function &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is usually given as a discrete [[array data structure|array]] of samples &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I[p]&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, where &#039;&#039;p&#039;&#039; is a pair of integer indices.  The 2D structure tensor at a given [[pixel]] is usually taken to be the discrete sum&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
S_w[p] =&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{bmatrix}&lt;br /&gt;
\sum_r w[r] (I_x[p-r])^2 &amp;amp; \sum_r w[r]  I_x[p-r]I_y[p-r] \\[10pt]&lt;br /&gt;
\sum_r w[r] I_x[p-r]I_y[p-r]  &amp;amp; \sum_r w[r] (I_y[p-r])^2&lt;br /&gt;
\end{bmatrix}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Here the summation index &#039;&#039;r&#039;&#039; ranges over a finite set of index pairs (the &amp;quot;window&amp;quot;, typically &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\{-m..+m\}\times\{-m..+m\}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; for some &#039;&#039;m&#039;&#039;), and &#039;&#039;w&#039;&#039;[&#039;&#039;r&#039;&#039;] is a fixed &amp;quot;window weight&amp;quot; that depends on &#039;&#039;r&#039;&#039;, such that the sum of all weights is 1.  The values &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_x[p],I_y[p]&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; are the partial derivatives sampled at pixel &#039;&#039;p&#039;&#039;; which, for instance, may be estimated from by &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; by [[finite difference]] formulas.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The formula of the structure tensor can be written also as &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S_w[p]=\sum_r w[r] S_0[p-r]&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the matrix-valued array such that&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
S_0[p] =&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{bmatrix}&lt;br /&gt;
(I_x[p])^2 &amp;amp; I_x[p]I_y[p] \\[10pt]&lt;br /&gt;
I_x[p]I_y[p]  &amp;amp; (I_y[p])^2&lt;br /&gt;
\end{bmatrix}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Interpretation===&lt;br /&gt;
The importance of the 2D structure tensor &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S_w&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; stems from the fact that its [[eigenvalue]]s &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1,\lambda_2&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; (which can be ordered so that &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1 \geq \lambda_2\geq 0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;) and the corresponding [[eigenvector]]s &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;e_1,e_2&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; summarize the distribution of the [[gradient]] &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\nabla I = (I_x,I_y)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; within the window defined by &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;w&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; centered at &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;p&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&amp;lt;ref name=bigun86/&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=bigun87/&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=knutsson89/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Namely, if &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1 &amp;gt; \lambda_2&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, then  &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;e_1&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; (or &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;-e_1&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;) is the direction that is maximally aligned with the gradient within the window.  In particular, if &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1 &amp;gt; 0, \lambda_2 = 0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; then the gradient is always a multiple of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;e_1&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; (positive, negative or zero); this is the case if and only if &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; within the window varies along the direction &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;e_1&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; but is constant along &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;e_2&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1 = \lambda_2&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, on the other hand, the gradient in the window has no predominant direction; which happens, for instance, when the image has [[rotational symmetry]] within that window.  In particular, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1 = \lambda_2 = 0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; if and only if the function &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is constant (&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\nabla I = (0,0)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;) within &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;W&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
More generally, the value of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_k &amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, for &#039;&#039;k&#039;&#039;=1 or &#039;&#039;k&#039;&#039;=2, is the &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;w&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;-weighted average, in the neighborhood of &#039;&#039;p&#039;&#039;, of the square of the [[directional derivative]] of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; along &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;e_k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.  The relative discrepancy between the two eigenvalues of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S_w&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is an indicator of the degree of [[isotropy|anisotropy]] of the gradient in the window, namely how strongly is it biased towards a particular direction (and its opposite).&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;Jahne1993&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite book|author=B. Jahne|title=Spatio-Temporal Image Processing: Theory and Scientific Applications|location=Berlin|publisher=Springer-Verlag|volume=751|year=1993}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=MedioniEA&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite book|author=G. Medioni, M. Lee and C. Tang|title=A Computational Framework for Feature Extraction and Segmentation|publisher=Elsevier Science|date=March 2000}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This attribute can be quantified by the &#039;&#039;&#039;coherence&#039;&#039;&#039;, defined as&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c_w=\left(\frac{\lambda_1-\lambda_2}{\lambda_1+\lambda_2}\right)^2&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
if &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_2&amp;gt;0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.  This quantity is 1 when the gradient is totally aligned, and 0 when it has no preferred direction. The formula is undefined, even in the [[limit]], when the image is constant in the window (&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1=\lambda_2=0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;). Some authors define it as 0 in that case.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note that the average of the gradient &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\nabla I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; inside the window is &#039;&#039;&#039;not&#039;&#039;&#039; a good indicator of anisotropy. Aligned but oppositely oriented gradient vectors would cancel out in this average, whereas in the structure tensor they are properly added together.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite journal|author=T. Brox, J. Weickert, B. Burgeth and P. Mrazek|title=Nonlinear Structure Tensors|booktitle=Universitat des Saarlandes, Tech. Report|issue=113|pages=1–32|year=2004}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By expanding the effective radius of the window function &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;w&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; (that is, increasing its variance), one can make the structure tensor more robust in the face of noise, at the cost of diminished spatial resolution.&amp;lt;ref name=MedioniEA /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=lin94book&amp;gt;T. Lindeberg (1994), &#039;&#039;[http://www.nada.kth.se/~tony/book.html Scale-Space Theory in Computer Vision]&#039;&#039;. Kluwer Academic Publishers, (see sections 14.4.1 and 14.2.3 on pages 359-360 and 355-356 for detailed statements about how the multi-scale second-moment matrix/structure tensor defines a true and uniquely determined multi-scale representation of directional data).&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  The formal basis for this property is described in more detail below, where it is shown that a multi-scale formulation of the structure tensor, referred to as the [[Structure tensor#The multi-scale structure tensor|multi-scale structure tensor]], constitutes a &#039;&#039;true multi-scale representation of directional data under variations of the spatial extent of the window function&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==The 3D structure tensor==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Definition===&lt;br /&gt;
The structure tensor can be defined also for a function &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of three variables &#039;&#039;p&#039;&#039;=(&#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039;,&#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039;,&#039;&#039;z&#039;&#039;) in an entirely analogous way.  Namely, in the continuous version we have &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S_w(p) = \int w(r) S_0(p-r)\,d r&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, where&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
S_0(p) = &lt;br /&gt;
\begin{bmatrix}&lt;br /&gt;
(I_x(p))^2 &amp;amp; I_x(p)I_y(p) &amp;amp; I_x(p)I_z(p) \\[10pt]&lt;br /&gt;
I_x(p)I_y(p) &amp;amp; (I_y(p))^2 &amp;amp; I_y(p)I_z(p) \\[10pt]&lt;br /&gt;
I_x(p)I_z(p) &amp;amp; I_y(p)I_z(p) &amp;amp; (I_z(p))^2&lt;br /&gt;
\end{bmatrix}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_x,I_y,I_z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; are the three partial derivatives of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, and the integral ranges over &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathbb{R}^3&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the discrete version,&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S_w[p]=\sum_r w[r] S_0[p-r]&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, where &lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
S_0[p] =&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{bmatrix}&lt;br /&gt;
(I_x[p])^2 &amp;amp; I_x[p]I_y[p] &amp;amp; I_x[p]I_z[p] \\[10pt]&lt;br /&gt;
I_x[p]I_y[p]  &amp;amp; (I_y[p])^2 &amp;amp; I_y[p]I_z[p]\\[10pt]&lt;br /&gt;
I_x[p]I_z[p] &amp;amp; I_y[p]I_z[p] &amp;amp; (I_z[p])^2&lt;br /&gt;
\end{bmatrix}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
and the sum ranges over a finite set of 3D indices, usually &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\{-m..+m\}\times\{-m..+m\}\times\{-m..+m\}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; for some &#039;&#039;m&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Interpretation===&lt;br /&gt;
As in the two-dimensional case, the eigenvalues &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1,\lambda_2,\lambda_3&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S_w[p]&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, and the corresponding eigenvectors &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;e_1,e_2,e_3&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, summarize the distribution of gradient directions within the neighborhood of &#039;&#039;p&#039;&#039; defined by the window &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;w&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.  This information can be visualized as an [[ellipsoid]] whose semi-axes are equal to the eigenvalues and directed along their corresponding eigenvectors.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;Medioni&amp;quot;/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:STgeneric.png|thumb|center|240px|Ellipsoidal representation of the 3D structure tensor.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In particular, if the ellipsoid is stretched along one axis only, like a cigar (that is, if &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is much larger than both &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_2&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_3&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;), it means that the gradient in the window is predominantly aligned with the direction &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;e_1&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, so that the [[isosurface]]s of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; tend to be flat and perpendicular to that vector.  This situation occurs, for instance, when &#039;&#039;p&#039;&#039; lies on a thin plate-like feature, or on the smooth boundary between two regions with contrasting values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;center&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;table cellborder=0px border=0px&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  &amp;lt;tr valign=top&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
    &amp;lt;td&amp;gt;[[Image:STsurfel.png|thumb|180px|The structure tensor ellipsoid of a surface-like neighborhood (&amp;quot;[[surfel]]&amp;quot;), where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1 &amp;gt;\!&amp;gt; \lambda_2 \approx \lambda_3&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.]]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
    &amp;lt;td&amp;gt;[[Image:StepPlane3D.png|thumb|180px|A 3D window straddling a smooth boundary surface between two uniform regions of a 3D image.]]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
    &amp;lt;td&amp;gt;[[Image:StepPlane3DST.png|thumb|180px|The corresponding structure tensor ellipsoid.]]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  &amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/center&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the ellipsoid is flattened in one direction only, like a pancake (that is, if &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_3&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is much smaller than both &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_2&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;), it means that the gradient directions are spread out but perpendicular to &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;e_3&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;; so that the isosurfaces tend to be like tubes parallel to that vector.  This situation occurs, for instance, when &#039;&#039;p&#039;&#039; lies on a thin line-like feature, or on a sharp corner of the boundary between two regions with contrasting values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;center&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;table cellborder=0px border=0px&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  &amp;lt;tr valign=top&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
    &amp;lt;td&amp;gt;[[Image:STcurvel.png|thumb|180px|The structure tensor of a line-like neighborhood (&amp;quot;curvel&amp;quot;), where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1 \approx \lambda_2 &amp;gt;\!&amp;gt; \lambda_3&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.]]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
    &amp;lt;td&amp;gt;[[Image:curve3D.png|thumb|180px|A 3D window straddling a line-like feature of a 3D image.]]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
    &amp;lt;td&amp;gt;[[Image:curve3DST.png|thumb|180px|The corresponding structure tensor ellipsoid.]]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  &amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/center&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Finally, if the ellipsoid is roughly spherical (that is, if &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1\approx\lambda_2\approx\lambda_3&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;), it means that the gradient directions in the window are more or less evenly distributed, with no marked preference; so that the function &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is mostly isotropic in that neighborhood.  This happens, for instance, when the function has [[spherical symmetry]] in the neighborhood of &#039;&#039;p&#039;&#039;. In particular, if the ellipsoid degenerates to a point (that is, if the three eigenvalues are zero), it means that &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is constant (has zero gradient) within the window.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;center&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;table cellborder=0px border=0px&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  &amp;lt;tr valign=top&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
    &amp;lt;td&amp;gt;[[Image:STball.png|thumb|180px|The structure tensor in an isotropic neighborhood, where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_1\approx\lambda_2\approx\lambda_3&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.]]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
    &amp;lt;td&amp;gt;[[Image:Sphere3D.png|thumb|180px|A 3D window containing a spherical feature of a 3D image.]]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
    &amp;lt;td&amp;gt;[[Image:Sphere3DST.png|thumb|180px|The corresponding structure tensor ellipsoid.]]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  &amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/center&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==The multi-scale structure tensor==&lt;br /&gt;
The structure tensor is an important tool in [[scale space]] analysis.  The &#039;&#039;&#039;multi-scale structure tensor&#039;&#039;&#039; (or &#039;&#039;&#039;multi-scale second moment matrix&#039;&#039;&#039;) of a function &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is in contrast to other one-parameter scale-space features an image descriptor that is defined over &#039;&#039;two&#039;&#039; scale parameters.&lt;br /&gt;
One scale parameter, referred to as &#039;&#039;local scale&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;t&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, is needed for determining the amount of pre-smoothing when computing the image gradient &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;(\nabla I)(x; t)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Another scale parameter, referred to as &#039;&#039;integration scale&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;s&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, is needed for specifying the spatial extent of the window function &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;w(\xi; s)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; that determines the weights for the region in space over which the components of the outer product of the gradient by itself &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;(\nabla I)(\nabla I)^T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; are accumulated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
More precisely, suppose that &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is a real-valued signal defined over &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathbb{R}^k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. For any local scale &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;t &amp;gt; 0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, let a multi-scale representation &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I(x; t)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of this signal be given by &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I(x; t) = h(x; t)*I(x)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;h(x; t)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; represents a pre-smoothing kernel. Furthermore, let &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;(\nabla I)(x; t)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; denote the gradient of the [[scale space representation]].&lt;br /&gt;
Then, the &#039;&#039;multi-scale structure tensor/second-moment matrix&#039;&#039; is defined by&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;ref name=lin94book/&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=lingar97&amp;gt;{{cite journal&lt;br /&gt;
| author=T. Lindeberg and J. Garding&lt;br /&gt;
| title=Shape-adapted smoothing in estimation of 3-D depth cues from affine distortions of local 2-D structure&lt;br /&gt;
| journal=Image and Vision Computing&lt;br /&gt;
| year=1997&lt;br /&gt;
| volume=15&lt;br /&gt;
| pages=pp 415–434&lt;br /&gt;
| url=http://www.nada.kth.se/~tony/abstracts/LG94-ECCV.html&lt;br /&gt;
| doi=10.1016/S0262-8856(97)01144-X&lt;br /&gt;
| issue=6&lt;br /&gt;
}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=garlin96&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  J. Garding and T. Lindeberg (1996). &#039;&#039;[http://www.nada.kth.se/cvap/abstracts/cvap117.html &amp;quot;Direct computation of shape cues using scale-adapted spatial derivative operators]&#039;&#039;, International Journal of Computer Vision, volume 17, issue 2, pages 163--191.&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
\mu(x; t, s) =&lt;br /&gt;
\int_{\xi \in \mathbb{R}^k} &lt;br /&gt;
(\nabla I)(x-\xi; t) \, (\nabla I)^T(x-\xi; t) \, &lt;br /&gt;
w(\xi; s) \, d\xi &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Conceptually, one may ask if it would be sufficient to use any self-similar families of smoothing functions &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;h(x; t)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;w(\xi; s)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. If one naively would apply, for example, a box filter, however, then non-desirable artifacts could easily occur. If one wants the multi-scale structure tensor to be well-behaved over both increasing local scales &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;t&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and increasing integration scales &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;s&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, then it can be shown that both the smoothing function and the window function &#039;&#039;have to&#039;&#039; be Gaussian.&amp;lt;ref name=lin94book/&amp;gt; The conditions that specify this uniqueness are similar to the [[scale-space axioms]] that are used for deriving the uniqueness of the Gaussian kernel for a regular Gaussian [[scale space]] of image intensities.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
There are different ways of handling the two-parameter scale variations in this family of image descriptors. If we keep the local scale parameter &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;t&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; fixed and apply increasingly broadened versions of the window function by increasing the integration scale parameter &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;s&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; only, then we obtain a &#039;&#039;true formal [[scale space representation]] of the directional data computed at the given local scale&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;t&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&amp;lt;ref name=lin94book/&amp;gt; If we couple the local scale and integration scale by a &#039;&#039;relative integration scale&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;r \geq 1&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, such that &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;s = r t&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; then for any fixed value of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;r&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, we obtain a reduced self-similar one-parameter variation, which is frequently used to simplify computational algorithms, for example in [[corner detection]], [[interest point detection]], [[texture analysis]] and [[image registration|image matching]].&lt;br /&gt;
By varying the relative integration scale &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;r \geq 1&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in such a self-similar scale variation, we obtain another alternative way of parameterizing the multi-scale nature of directional data obtained by increasing the integration scale.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A conceptually similar construction can be performed for discrete signals, with the convolution integral replaced by a convolution sum and with the continuous Gaussian kernel &amp;lt;math&amp;gt; g(x; t)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; replaced by the [[discrete Gaussian kernel]] &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T(n; t)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;:&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
\mu(x; t, s) =&lt;br /&gt;
\sum_{n \in \mathbb{Z}^k} &lt;br /&gt;
(\nabla I)(x-n; t) \, (\nabla I)^T(x-n; t) \, &lt;br /&gt;
w(n; s) &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
When quantizing the scale parameters &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;t&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;s&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in an actual implementation, a finite geometric progression &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha^i&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is usually used, with &#039;&#039;i&#039;&#039; ranging from 0 to some maximum scale index &#039;&#039;m&#039;&#039;.  Thus, the discrete scale levels  will bear certain similarities to [[pyramid (image processing)|image pyramid]], although spatial subsampling may not necessarily be used in order to preserve more accurate data for subsequent processing stages.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applications==&lt;br /&gt;
The eigenvalues of the structure tensor play a significant role in many image processing algorithms, for problems like [[corner detection]], [[interest point detection]], and [[feature tracking]].&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;Medioni&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite conference|author=M. Nicolescu and G. Medioni |title=Motion Segmentation with Accurate Boundaries — A Tensor Voting Approach|booktitle=Proc. IEEE Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition|volume=1|pages=382–389|year=2003}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite journal&lt;br /&gt;
|author=W. Förstner|title=A Feature Based Correspondence Algorithm for Image Processing&lt;br /&gt;
|booktitle=International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing|volume=26|pages=150–166|year=1986}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite conference|author=C. Harris and M. Stephens|title=A Combined Corner and Edge Detector&lt;br /&gt;
|booktitle=Proc. of the 4th ALVEY Vision Conference|pages=147–151|year=1988}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite journal|author=K. Rohr|title=On 3D Differential Operators for Detecting Point Landmarks&lt;br /&gt;
|booktitle=Image and Vision Computing|volume=15|issue=3|pages=219–233|year=1997}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite conference|author=I. Laptev and T. Lindeberg|title=Space-time interest points&lt;br /&gt;
|booktitle=International Conference on Computer Vision ICCV&#039;03|url=ftp://ftp.nada.kth.se/CVAP/reports/LapLin03-ICCV.pdf|doi=10.1109/ICCV.2003.1238378|pages=432–439|volume=I|year=2003}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite conference|author=B. Triggs|title=Detecting Keypoints with Stable Position, Orientation, and Scale under Illumination Changes&lt;br /&gt;
|booktitle=Proc. European Conference on Computer Vision|volume=4|pages=100–113|year=2004}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{{cite conference|author=C. Kenney, M. Zuliani and B. Manjunath, |title=An Axiomatic Approach to Corner Detection|booktitle=Proc. IEEE Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition|pages=191–197|year=2005}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  The structure tensor also plays a central role in the [[Lucas–Kanade Optical Flow Method|Lucas-Kanade optical flow algorithm]], and in its extensions to estimate [[affine shape adaptation]];&amp;lt;ref name=lingar97/&amp;gt; where the magnitude of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\lambda_2&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is an indicator of the reliability of the computed result.  The tensor has also been used for [[scale space]] analysis,&amp;lt;ref name=lin94book/&amp;gt; estimation of local surface orientation from monocular or binocular cues,&amp;lt;ref name=garlin96/&amp;gt; non-linear [[fingerprint enhancement]],&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  A. Almansa and T. Lindeberg (2000), &#039;&#039;[http://www.nada.kth.se/cvap/abstracts/cvap226.html Enhancement of fingerprint images using shape-adaptated scale-space operators]&#039;&#039;.  IEEE Transactions on Image Processing, volume 9, number 12, pages 2027-2042.&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; [[diffusion-based image processing]],&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;[http://www.mia.uni-saarland.de/weickert/book.html J. Weickert (1998), Anisotropic diffusion in image processing, Teuber Verlag, Stuttgart.]&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite journal|author=D. Tschumperle and Deriche|title=Diffusion PDE&#039;s on Vector-Valued Images|booktitle=IEEE Signal Processing Magazine|pages=16–25|date=September 2002}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite conference|author=S. Arseneau and J. Cooperstock|title=An Asymmetrical Diffusion Framework for Junction Analysis|booktitle=British Machine Vision Conference|volume=2|pages=689–698|date=September 2006}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
  {{cite conference|author=S. Arseneau, and J. Cooperstock|title=An Improved Representation of Junctions through Asymmetric Tensor Diffusion|booktitle=International Symposium on Visual Computing|date=November 2006}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and several other image processing problems.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Processing spatio-temporal video data with the structure tensor===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The three-dimensional structure tensor has been used to analyze three-dimensional video data (viewed as a function of &#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039;, &#039;&#039;y&#039;&#039;, and time &#039;&#039;t&#039;&#039;).&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;Jahne1993&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
If one in this context aims at image descriptors that are &#039;&#039;invariant&#039;&#039; under Galilean transformations, to make it possible to compare image measurements that have been obtained under variations of a priori unknown image velocities &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v = (v_x, v_y)^T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt; \begin{bmatrix} x&#039; \\ y&#039; \\ t&#039; \end{bmatrix} = G \begin{bmatrix} x \\ y \\ t \end{bmatrix} = G \begin{bmatrix} x - v_x \, t \\ y - v_y \, t \\ t \end{bmatrix}  &amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
it is, however, from a computational viewpoint more preferable to parameterize the components in the structure tensor/second-moment matrix &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; using the notion of &#039;&#039;Galilean diagonalization&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;ref name=lin04icpr&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
 {{cite conference|author=T. Lindeberg, A. Akbarzadeh, and I. Laptev|title=Galilean-corrected spatio-temporal interest operators|booktitle=International Conference on Pattern Recognition ICPR&#039;04|url=ftp://ftp.nada.kth.se/CVAP/reports/LinAkhLap04-ICPR.pdf|doi=10.1109/ICPR.2004.1334004|date=August 2004|volume=I| pages=57–62}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt; S&#039; = R_{space}^{-T} \, G^{-T} \, S \, G^{-1} \, R_{space}^{-1} = \begin{bmatrix} \nu_1 &amp;amp; \, &amp;amp; \, \\ \, &amp;amp; \nu_2 &amp;amp; \, \\ \, &amp;amp; \, &amp;amp; \nu_3 \end{bmatrix} &amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;G&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; denotes a Galilean transformation of space-time and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R_{space}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; a two-dimensional rotation over the spatial domain,&lt;br /&gt;
compared to the abovementioned use of eigenvalues of a 3-D structure tensor, which corresponds to an eigenvalue decomposition and a (non-physical) three-dimensional rotation of space-time&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt; S&#039;&#039; = R_{space-time}^{-T} \, S \, R_{space -time}^{-1}  = \begin{bmatrix} \lambda_1 &amp;amp; &amp;amp;  \\ &amp;amp; \lambda_2 &amp;amp; \\ &amp;amp; &amp;amp; \lambda_3 \end{bmatrix}  &amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
To obtain true Galilean invariance, however, also the shape of the spatio-temporal window function needs to be adapted,&amp;lt;ref name=lin04icpr/&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
 {{cite conference|author=I. Laptev, and T. Lindeberg|title=Velocity adaptation of space-time interest points|booktitle=International Conference on Pattern Recognition ICPR&#039;04|url=http://www.csc.kth.se/cvap/abstracts/LapLin04-ICPR.html|doi=10.1109/ICPR.2004.971|date=August 2004|volume=I| pages=52–56}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; corresponding to the transfer of [[affine shape adaptation]]&amp;lt;ref name=lingar97/&amp;gt; from spatial to spatio-temporal image data.&lt;br /&gt;
In combination with local spatio-temporal histogram descriptors,&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
 {{cite conference|author=I. Laptev, and T. Lindeberg|title=Local descriptors for spatio-temporal recognition|booktitle=ECCV&#039;04 Workshop on Spatial Coherence for Visual Motion Analysis (Prague, Czech Republic) Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science|url=http://www.csc.kth.se/cvap/abstracts/LapLin04-ECCVWS.html|doi=10.1007/11676959|date=May 2004|volume=3667| pages=91–103.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
these concepts together allow for Galilean invariant recognition of spatio-temporal events.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
 {{cite conference|author=I. Laptev, B. Caputo, C. Schuldt, and T. Lindeberg|title=Local velocity-adapted motion events for spatio-temporal recognition|booktitle=Computer Vision and Image Understanding|url=http://www.csc.kth.se/cvap/abstracts/LapCapSchLin07-CVIU.html|doi=10.1016/j.cviu.2006.11.023|year=2007|volume=108| pages= 207–229}}&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==See also==&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Tensor]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Directional derivative]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Gaussian]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Corner detection]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Edge detection]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Lucas Kanade method|Lucas-Kanade method]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Affine shape adaptation]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Resources==&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/loadFile.do?objectId=12362&amp;amp;objectType=FILE Download MATLAB Source]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sarsen/structureTensorTutorial/ Structure Tensor Tutorial (Original)]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{DEFAULTSORT:Structure Tensor}}&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Tensors]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Feature detection]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>128.12.253.132</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Skorokhod%27s_embedding_theorem&amp;diff=15977</id>
		<title>Skorokhod&#039;s embedding theorem</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Skorokhod%27s_embedding_theorem&amp;diff=15977"/>
		<updated>2013-06-27T03:32:06Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;128.12.187.216: /* Skorokhod&amp;#039;s second embedding theorem */ corrected somebody&amp;#039;s poor english&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;: &#039;&#039;Not to be confused with [[Kernel principal component analysis]].&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;kernel regression&#039;&#039;&#039; is a [[non-parametric]] technique in statistics to estimate the [[conditional expectation]] of a [[random variable]]. The objective is to find a non-linear relation between a pair of random variables &#039;&#039;&#039;&#039;&#039;X&#039;&#039;&#039;&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;&#039;&#039;&#039;Y&#039;&#039;&#039;&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In any [[nonparametric regression]], the [[conditional expectation]] of a variable &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;Y&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; relative to a variable &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;X&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; may be written:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\operatorname{E}(Y | X) = m(X)&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is an unknown function.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Nadaraya-Watson kernel regression ==&lt;br /&gt;
{{harvnb|Nadaraya|1964}} and {{harvnb|Watson|1964}} proposed to estimate &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; as a locally weighted average, using a [[kernel (statistics)|kernel]] as a weighting function. The Nadaraya-Watson estimator is:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;math&amp;gt; \widehat{m}_h(x)=\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n K_h(x-X_i) Y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^nK_h(x-X_i)}  &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;K&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is a kernel with a bandwidth &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;h&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. The fraction is a weighting term with sum 1.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Derivation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
\operatorname{E}(Y | X) = \int y f(y|x) dy = \int y \frac{f(x,y)}{f(x)} dy&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using the [[kernel density estimation]] for the joint distribution &#039;&#039;f(x,y)&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;f(x)&#039;&#039; with a kernel &#039;&#039;&#039;&#039;&#039;K&#039;&#039;&#039;&#039;&#039;,&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
\hat{f}(x,y) = n^{-1} h^{-2} \sum_{i=1}^{n} K\left(\frac{x-x_i}{h}\right) K\left(\frac{y-y_i}{h}\right)&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;,&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
\hat{f}(x) = n^{-1} h^{-1} \sum_{i=1}^{n} K\left(\frac{x-x_i}{h}\right)&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
we obtain the Nadaraya-Watson estimator.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Priestley-Chao kernel estimator ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
\widehat{m}_{PC}(x) = h^{-1} \sum_{i=1}^n (x_i - x_{i-1}) K\left(\frac{x-x_i}{h}\right) y_i&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Gasser-Müller kernel estimator ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
\widehat{m}_{GM}(x) = h^{-1} \sum_{i=1}^n \left[\int_{s_{i-1}}^{s_i} K\left(\frac{x-u}{h}\right) du\right] y_i&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;s_i = \frac{x_{i-1} + x_i}{2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Example ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This example is based upon Canadian cross-section wage data consisting&lt;br /&gt;
of a random sample taken from the 1971 Canadian Census Public Use&lt;br /&gt;
Tapes for male individuals having common education (grade 13). There&lt;br /&gt;
are 205 observations in total.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We consider estimating the unknown regression function using&lt;br /&gt;
Nadaraya-Watson kernel regression via the&lt;br /&gt;
[http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/np/index.html R np package]&lt;br /&gt;
that uses automatic (data-driven) bandwidth selection; see the [http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/np/vignettes/np.pdf np vignette] for an introduction to the np package.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The figure below shows the estimated regression function using a&lt;br /&gt;
second order Gaussian kernel along with asymptotic variability bounds&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:cps71 lc mean.png|center|360px]] &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;center&amp;gt;Estimated Regression Function.&amp;lt;/center&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Script for example ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The following commands of the [[R programming language]] use the&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;tt&amp;gt;npreg()&amp;lt;/tt&amp;gt; function to deliver optimal smoothing and to create&lt;br /&gt;
the figure given above. These commands can be entered at the command&lt;br /&gt;
prompt via cut and paste.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
 library(np) # non parametric library&lt;br /&gt;
 data(cps71)&lt;br /&gt;
 attach(cps71)&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
 m &amp;lt;- npreg(logwage~age)&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
 plot(m,plot.errors.method=&amp;quot;asymptotic&amp;quot;,&lt;br /&gt;
      plot.errors.style=&amp;quot;band&amp;quot;,&lt;br /&gt;
      ylim=c(11,15.2))&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
 points(age,logwage,cex=.25)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Related ==&lt;br /&gt;
According to {{harvnb|Salsburg|2002|pp=290–1}}, the algorithms used in kernel regression were independently developed and used in [[fuzzy system]]s: &amp;quot;Coming up with almost exactly the same computer algorithm, fuzzy systems and kernel density-based regressions appear to have been developed completely independently of one another.&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Reflist}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite journal&lt;br /&gt;
  | last = Nadaraya&lt;br /&gt;
  | first = E. A. &lt;br /&gt;
  | title = On Estimating Regression&lt;br /&gt;
  | journal = Theory of Probability and its Applications&lt;br /&gt;
  | volume = 9&lt;br /&gt;
  | issue = 1&lt;br /&gt;
  | pages = 141–2&lt;br /&gt;
  | year = 1964&lt;br /&gt;
  | doi = 10.1137/1109020 | ref=harv&lt;br /&gt;
  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite book&lt;br /&gt;
  | last = Li&lt;br /&gt;
  | first = Qi&lt;br /&gt;
  | coauthors = Racine, Jeffrey S.&lt;br /&gt;
  | title = Nonparametric Econometrics: Theory and Practice&lt;br /&gt;
  | publisher = Princeton University Press&lt;br /&gt;
  | year = 2007&lt;br /&gt;
  | isbn =  0-691-12161-3}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite book&lt;br /&gt;
  | last = Simonoff&lt;br /&gt;
  | first = Jeffrey S.&lt;br /&gt;
  | title = Smoothing Methods in Statistics&lt;br /&gt;
  | publisher = Springer&lt;br /&gt;
  | year = 1996&lt;br /&gt;
  | isbn = 0-387-94716-7}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite book |last=Salsburg |first=D. |title=The Lady Tasting Tea: How Statistics Revolutionized Science in the Twentieth Century |publisher=W.H. Freeman |year=2002 |isbn=0-8050-7134-2 |ref=harv}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite journal |author=Richard, C.; Bermudez, J.-C. M.; Honeine, P. |title=Online prediction of time series data with kernels |journal=IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=1058–67 |date=March 2009 |doi=10.1109/TSP.2008.2009895 |url=http://www.cedric-richard.fr/Articles/richard2009online.pdf|format=PDF}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite journal |author=Parreira, W.; Bermudez, J.-C. M.; Richard, C.; Tourneret, J.-Y. |title=Stochastic behavior analysis of the Gaussian kernel-least-mean-square algorithm. |journal=IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing |volume=60 |issue=5 |pages=2208–2222 |date=May 2012 |doi=10.1109/TSP.2012.2186132 |url=http://www.cedric-richard.fr/Articles/parreira2012stochastic.pdf|format=PDF}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite journal |author=Richard, C.; Bermudez, J.-C. M. |title=Closed-form conditions for convergence of the Gaussian kernel-least-mean-square algorithm. |journal=Proc. of Asilomar&#039;12 |pages=1797–1801 |date=November 2012 |doi=10.1109/ACSSC.2012.6489344 |url=http://www.cedric-richard.fr/Articles/richard2012closed.pdf|format=PDF}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*{{cite journal |first=G. S. |last=Watson |authorlink=Geoffrey Watson |title=Smooth regression analysis |journal=Sankhyā: The Indian Journal of Statistics, Series A |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=359–372 |year=1964 |jstor=25049340 |ref=harv}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Statistical implementation==&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Stata]] [http://ideas.repec.org/c/boc/bocode/s372601.html kernreg2]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;pre&amp;gt; kernreg2 y x, bwidth(.5) kercode(3) npoint(500) gen(kernelprediction gridofpoints)&amp;lt;/pre&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[R (programming language)|R]]: [http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/np/index.html npreg  (package &#039;&#039;np&#039;&#039;)]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[GNU Octave|GNU/octave]] mathematical program package:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==External links==&lt;br /&gt;
* [http://www.cs.tut.fi/~lasip Scale-adaptive kernel regression] (with Matlab software).&lt;br /&gt;
* [http://people.revoledu.com/kardi/tutorial/Regression/KernelRegression/index.html Tutorial of Kernel regression using spreadsheet] (with Microsoft Excel).&lt;br /&gt;
* [http://pcarvalho.com/things/kernelregressor/ An online kernel regression demonstration]  Requires .NET 3.0 or later.&lt;br /&gt;
* [http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/np/index.html The np package] An [[R (programming language)|R]] package that provides a variety of nonparametric and semiparametric kernel methods that seamlessly handle a mix of continuous, unordered, and ordered factor data types.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Non-parametric statistics]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>128.12.187.216</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Classical_Wiener_space&amp;diff=14924</id>
		<title>Classical Wiener space</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Classical_Wiener_space&amp;diff=14924"/>
		<updated>2013-06-27T03:17:05Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;128.12.187.216: /* Properties of classical Wiener space */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{unreferenced|date=August 2009}}&lt;br /&gt;
{{Expert-subject|Mathematics|date=February 2009}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In [[mathematics]], the &#039;&#039;&#039;Malliavin derivative&#039;&#039;&#039; is a notion of [[derivative]] in the [[Malliavin calculus]]. Intuitively, it is the notion of derivative appropriate to paths in [[classical Wiener space]], which are &amp;quot;usually&amp;quot; not differentiable in the usual sense. {{Citation Needed|date=August 2011}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Definition==&lt;br /&gt;
Let &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;H&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; be the [[Cameron-Martin space]], and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;C_{0}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; denote [[classical Wiener space]]:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;H := \{ f \in W^{1,2} ([0, T]; \mathbb{R}^{n}) \;|\; f(0) = 0 \} := \{ \text{paths starting at 0 with first derivative in } L^{2} \}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;C_{0} := C_{0} ([0, T]; \mathbb{R}^{n}) := \{ \text{continuous  paths starting at 0} \}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By the [[Sobolev_inequality#Sobolev_embedding_theorem|Sobolev embedding theorem]], &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;H \subset C_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Let&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;i : H \to C_{0}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
denote the [[inclusion map]].&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Suppose that &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F : C_{0} \to \mathbb{R}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is [[Fréchet derivative|Fréchet differentiable]]. Then the [[Fréchet derivative]] is a map&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathrm{D} F : C_{0} \to \mathrm{Lin} (C_{0}; \mathbb{R})&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
i.e., for paths &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\sigma \in C_{0}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathrm{D} F (\sigma)\;&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is an element of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;C_{0}^{*}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the [[dual space]] to &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;C_{0}\;&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Denote by &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathrm{D}_{H} F(\sigma)\;&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; the [[continuous function|continuous]] [[linear map]] &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;H \to \mathbb{R}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; defined by&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathrm{D}_{H} F (\sigma) := \mathrm{D} F (\sigma) \circ i : H \to \mathbb{R}, &amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
sometimes known as the [[H-derivative|&#039;&#039;H&#039;&#039;-derivative]]. Now define &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\nabla_{H} F : C_{0} \to H&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; to be the [[adjoint]]{{dn|date=December 2013}} of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathrm{D}_{H} F\;&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the sense that&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\int_0^T \left(\partial_t \nabla_H F(\sigma)\right) \cdot \partial_t h := \langle \nabla_{H} F (\sigma), h \rangle_{H} = \left( \mathrm{D}_{H} F \right) (\sigma) (h) = \lim_{t \to 0} \frac{F (\sigma + t i(h)) - F(\sigma)}{t}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Then the &#039;&#039;&#039;Malliavin derivative&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathrm{D}_{t}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is defined by&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\left( \mathrm{D}_{t} F \right) (\sigma) := \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \left( \left( \nabla_{H} F \right) (\sigma) \right).&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathrm{D}_{t}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the set &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mathbf{F}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of all Fréchet differentiable real-valued functions on &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;C_{0}\;&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;; the [[codomain]] is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;L^{2} ([0, T]; \mathbb{R}^{n})&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Skorokhod integral&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\delta\;&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is defined to be the [[adjoint]]{{dn|date=December 2013}} of the Malliavin derivative:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\delta := \left( \mathrm{D}_{t} \right)^{*} : \operatorname{image} \left( \mathrm{D}_{t} \right) \subseteq L^{2} ([0, T]; \mathbb{R}^{n}) \to \mathbf{F}^{*} = \mathrm{Lin} (\mathbf{F}; \mathbb{R}).&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==See also==&lt;br /&gt;
*[[H-derivative]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
{{reflist}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Generalizations of the derivative]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Stochastic calculus]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>128.12.187.216</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Magnetic_dipole_transition&amp;diff=24944</id>
		<title>Magnetic dipole transition</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Magnetic_dipole_transition&amp;diff=24944"/>
		<updated>2013-06-05T08:03:57Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;128.12.95.13: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;In [[mathematics]], a &#039;&#039;&#039;radial function&#039;&#039;&#039; is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] defined on a [[Euclidean space]] &#039;&#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;n&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; whose value at each point depends only on the distance between that point and the origin.  For example, a radial function Φ in two dimensions has the form&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Phi(x,y) = \varphi(r), \quad r = \sqrt{x^2+y^2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
where φ is a function of a single non-negative real variable.  Radial functions are contrasted with [[spherical function]]s, and indeed any decent function on Euclidean space can be decomposed into a series consisting of radial and spherical parts: the [[solid spherical harmonic]] expansion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A function is radial [[if and only if]] it is invariant under all [[rotation]]s leaving the origin fixed.  That is, &#039;&#039;ƒ&#039;&#039; is radial if and only if&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f\circ \rho = f\,&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
for all {{nowrap|&amp;amp;rho; &amp;amp;isin; SO(&#039;&#039;n&#039;&#039;)}}, the [[special orthogonal group]] in &#039;&#039;n&#039;&#039; dimensions.  This characterization of radial functions makes it possible also to define radial [[distribution (mathematics)|distributions]].  These are distributions &#039;&#039;S&#039;&#039; on &#039;&#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;n&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; such that&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;S[\phi] = S[\varphi\circ\rho]&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
for every test function φ and rotation ρ.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Given any (locally integrable) function &#039;&#039;ƒ&#039;&#039;, its radial part is given by averaging over spheres centered at the origin.  To wit,&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\phi(x) = \frac{1}{\omega_{n-1}}\int_{S^{n-1}} f(rx&#039;)\,dx&#039;&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
where ω&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;n&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;minus;1&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; is the surface area of the [[N sphere|(&#039;&#039;n&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;minus;1)-sphere]] &#039;&#039;S&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;n&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;minus;1&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;, and {{nowrap|1=&#039;&#039;r&#039;&#039; = |&#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039;|}}, {{nowrap|1=&#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;prime; = &#039;&#039;x&#039;&#039;/r}}.  It follows essentially by [[Fubini&#039;s theorem]] that a locally integrable function has a well-defined radial part at [[almost every]] &#039;&#039;r&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The [[Fourier transform]] of a radial function is also radial, and so radial functions play a vital role in [[Fourier analysis]].  Furthermore, the Fourier transform of a radial function typically has stronger decay behavior at infinity than non-radial functions: for radial functions bounded in a neighborhood of the origin, the Fourier transform decays faster than &#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;&amp;amp;minus;(&#039;&#039;n&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;minus;1)/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;.  The [[Bessel functions]] are a special class of radial function that arise naturally in Fourier analysis as the radial [[eigenfunction]]s of the [[Laplacian]]; as such they appear naturally as the radial portion of the Fourier transform.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==See also==&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Radial basis function]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
*{{citation|last1=Stein|first1=Elias|authorlink1=Elias Stein|first2=Guido|last2=Weiss|authorlink2=Guido Weiss|title=Introduction to Fourier Analysis on Euclidean Spaces|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1971|isbn=978-0-691-08078-9|location=Princeton, N.J.}}.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{DEFAULTSORT:Radial Function}}&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Harmonic analysis]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Rotational symmetry]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Types of functions]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>128.12.95.13</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Coefficients_of_potential&amp;diff=4233</id>
		<title>Coefficients of potential</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Coefficients_of_potential&amp;diff=4233"/>
		<updated>2013-02-04T05:38:37Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;128.12.82.116: /* Theory */ Changed &amp;lt;&amp;gt; to \langle\rangle&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;[[Image:Annulus_area.svg|right|150px|An annulus]]&lt;br /&gt;
In [[mathematics]], an &#039;&#039;&#039;annulus&#039;&#039;&#039; (the [[Latin]] word for &amp;quot;little ring&amp;quot;, with plural &#039;&#039;annuli&#039;&#039;) is a ring-shaped object, especially a region bounded by two concentric circles. The adjectival form is &#039;&#039;&#039;annular&#039;&#039;&#039; (as in [[annular eclipse]]).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The open annulus is [[Homeomorphism|topologically equivalent]] to both the open [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]] {{math|&#039;&#039;S&#039;&#039;&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; &amp;amp;times; (0,1)}} and the [[punctured plane]].&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The area of an annulus is the difference in the areas of the larger [[circle]] of radius {{math|&#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;}} and the smaller one of radius {{math|&#039;&#039;r&#039;&#039;}}:&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;A = \pi R^2 - \pi r^2 = \pi(R^2 - r^2)\,.&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The area of an annulus can be obtained from the length of the longest interval that can lie completely inside the annulus, 2*&#039;&#039;d&#039;&#039; in the accompanying diagram. This can be proven by the [[Pythagorean theorem]]; the length of the longest interval that can lie completely inside the annulus will be [[tangent]] to the smaller circle and form a right angle with its radius at that point. Therefore &#039;&#039;d&#039;&#039; and &#039;&#039;r&#039;&#039; are the sides of a right angled triangle with hypotenuse &#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039; and the area is given by:&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;A = \pi (R^2-r^2) = \pi d^2 \,.&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The area can also be obtained via [[calculus]] by dividing the annulus up into an infinite number of annuli of [[infinitesimal]] width {{math|&#039;&#039;d&amp;amp;rho;&#039;&#039;}} and area {{math|2&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;pi;&amp;amp;rho; d&amp;amp;rho;&#039;&#039;}} ( {{math|= circumference &amp;amp;times; width}}) and then [[integral|integrating]] from &#039;&#039;&amp;amp;rho;&#039;&#039; = &#039;&#039;r&#039;&#039; to &#039;&#039;&amp;amp;rho;&#039;&#039; = &#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;A = \int_r^R 2\pi\rho\, d\rho = \pi(R^2-r^2).&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The area of an annulus sector of angle {{math|&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;theta;&#039;&#039;}}, with {{math|&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;theta;&#039;&#039;}} measured in radians, is given by:&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt; A = \frac{\theta}{2} (R^2 - r^2) &amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Complex structure==&lt;br /&gt;
In [[complex analysis]] an &#039;&#039;&#039;annulus&#039;&#039;&#039; {{math|ann&#039;&#039;(a; r, R)&#039;&#039;}} in the [[complex plane]] is an [[open region]] defined by:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt; r &amp;lt; |z-a| &amp;lt; R.\,&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If {{math|&#039;&#039;r&#039;&#039;}} is {{math|0}}, the region is known as the &#039;&#039;&#039;punctured disk&#039;&#039;&#039; of radius {{math|&#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;}} around the point {{math|&#039;&#039;a&#039;&#039;}}.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a subset of the complex [[Plane (mathematics)|plane]], an annulus can be considered as a [[Riemann surface]]. The complex structure of an annulus depends only on the ratio {{math|&#039;&#039;r&#039;&#039;/&#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039;}}. Each annulus {{math|ann&#039;&#039;(a; r, R)&#039;&#039;}} can be [[holomorphic function|holomorphically]] mapped to a standard one centered at the origin and with outer radius {{math|1}} by the map&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z \mapsto \frac{z-a}{R}.&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The inner radius is then {{math|&#039;&#039;r&#039;&#039;/&#039;&#039;R&#039;&#039; &amp;lt; 1}}.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The [[Hadamard three-circle theorem]] is a statement about the maximum value a holomorphic function may take inside an annulus.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== See also ==&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Annulus theorem]] (or conjecture)&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Spherical shell]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Torus]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[List of geometric shapes]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== External links ==&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.mathopenref.com/annulus.html Annulus definition and properties] With interactive animation&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.mathopenref.com/annulusarea.html Area of an annulus, formula] With interactive animation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Elementary geometry]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Geometric shapes]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>128.12.82.116</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Atiyah_conjecture&amp;diff=265552</id>
		<title>Atiyah conjecture</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Atiyah_conjecture&amp;diff=265552"/>
		<updated>2012-07-25T01:12:00Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;128.12.210.91: /* Results */&lt;/p&gt;
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		<author><name>128.12.210.91</name></author>
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	<entry>
		<id>https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Ornstein%E2%80%93Uhlenbeck_operator&amp;diff=261322</id>
		<title>Ornstein–Uhlenbeck operator</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.formulasearchengine.com/w/index.php?title=Ornstein%E2%80%93Uhlenbeck_operator&amp;diff=261322"/>
		<updated>2012-04-19T02:16:05Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;128.12.146.190: &lt;/p&gt;
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== come un imbuto. Mettere in. Nike Jordan Italia ==&lt;br /&gt;
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== non è raro individuare come nuovi top Longchamp Roma ==&lt;br /&gt;
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== o forse un simile operazioni Longchamp Le Pliage ==&lt;br /&gt;
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== si scusa per ultima analisi Hogan Spaccio ==&lt;br /&gt;
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