Compartmental models in epidemiology

In cryptography, a cryptosystem is semantically secure if any probabilistic, polynomial-time algorithm (PPTA) that is given the ciphertext of a certain message $m$ (taken from any distribution of messages), and the message's length, cannot determine any partial information on the message with probability non-negligibly higher than all other PPTA's that only have access to the message length (and not the ciphertext). In other words, knowledge of the ciphertext (and length) of some unknown message does not reveal any additional information on the message that can be feasibly extracted. This concept is the computational complexity analogue to Shannon's concept of perfect secrecy. Perfect secrecy means that the ciphertext reveals no information at all about the plaintext, whereas semantic security implies that any information revealed cannot be feasibly extractedPrimarily based on the most recent URA personal property value index (PPPI) flash estimates, we know that the PPPI, which represents the overall real property price development, has dipped in 2013Q4. That is the first dip the market has seen within the final 2 years.

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One factor we've on this nation is a big group of "economists," and "market analysts." What's interesting about this group of real property market-watchers is that there are two very other ways wherein they predict Boomers will affect housing markets over the subsequent decade. Let's check out those two opposites and see how every can change the best way real property investors strategy their markets. The good news is that actual property buyers are prepared for either state of affairs, and there's profit in being ready. I'm excited and searching ahead to the alternatives both or each of these conditions will supply; thank you Boomers! Mapletree to further broaden past Asia Why fortune will favour the brave in Asia's closing real property frontier

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First, there are typically extra rental transactions than gross sales transactions, to permit AV to be decided for each property primarily based on comparable properties. Second, movements in sale costs are more unstable than leases. Hence, utilizing rental transactions to derive the AV helps to maintain property tax more steady for property homeowners. If you're buying or trying to lease a property. It's tiring to call up individual property agent, organize appointments, coordinate timing and to go for particular person property viewing. What most individuals do is to have a property agent representing them who will arrange and coordinate the viewings for all the properties out there based mostly on your necessities & most well-liked timing. Rent Property District 12 Rent Property District thirteen

The Annual Worth of a property is mostly derived based mostly on the estimated annual hire that it may well fetch if it have been rented out. In determining the Annual Worth of a property, IRAS will think about the leases of similar properties within the vicinity, dimension and condition of the property, and different relevant components. The Annual Worth of a property is determined in the identical method regardless of whether the property is let-out, proprietor-occupied or vacant. The Annual Worth of land is determined at 5% of the market price of the land. When a constructing is demolished, the Annual Worth of the land is assessed by this method. Property Tax on Residential Properties Buyer Stamp Responsibility on Buy of Properties – Business and residential properties Rent House District 01

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History

The notion of semantic security was first put forward by Goldwasser and Micali in 1982. However, the definition they initially proposed offered no straightforward means to prove the security of practical cryptosystems. Goldwasser/Micali subsequently demonstrated that semantic security is equivalent to another definition of security called ciphertext indistinguishability. This latter definition is more common than the original definition of semantic security because it better facilitates proving the security of practical cryptosystems.

Symmetric-key cryptography

In the case of symmetric-key algorithm cryptosystems, an adversary must not be able to compute any information about a plaintext from its ciphertext. This may be posited as an adversary, given two plaintexts of equal length and their two respective ciphertexts, cannot determine which ciphertext belongs to which plaintext.

Public-key cryptography

For an asymmetric key encryption algorithm cryptosystem to be semantically secure, it must be infeasible for a computationally bounded adversary to derive significant information about a message (plaintext) when given only its ciphertext and the corresponding public encryption key. Semantic security considers only the case of a "passive" attacker, i.e., one who generates and observes ciphertexts using the public key and plaintexts of her choice. Unlike other security definitions, semantic security does not consider the case of chosen ciphertext attack (CCA), where an attacker is able to request the decryption of chosen ciphertexts, and many semantically secure encryption schemes are demonstrably insecure against chosen ciphertext attack. Consequently, semantic security is now considered an insufficient condition for securing a general-purpose encryption scheme.

Indistinguishability under Chosen Plaintext Attack (IND-CPA) is commonly defined by the following game:

1. A probabilistic polynomial time-bounded adversary is given a public key, which it may use to generate any number of ciphertexts (within polynomial bounds).
2. The adversary generates two equal-length messages $m_0$ and $m_1$, and transmits them to a challenge oracle along with the public key.
3. The challenge oracle selects one of the messages by flipping a fair coin, encrypts the message under the public key, and returns the resulting ciphertext $c$ to the adversary.

The underlying cryptosystem is IND-CPA (and thus semantically secure under chosen plaintext attack) if the adversary cannot determine which of the two messages was chosen by the oracle, with probability significantly greater than $1/2$ (the success rate of random guessing). Variants of this definition define indistinguishability under chosen ciphertext attack and adaptive chosen ciphertext attack (IND-CCA, IND-CCA2).

Because the adversary possesses the public encryption key in the above game, a semantically secure encryption scheme must by definition be probabilistic, possessing a component of randomness; if this were not the case, the adversary could simply compute the deterministic encryption of $m_0$ and $m_1$ and compare these encryptions with the returned ciphertext $c$ to successfully guess the oracle's choice.

Semantically secure encryption algorithms include Goldwasser-Micali, El Gamal and Paillier. These schemes are considered provably secure, as their semantic security can be reduced to solving some hard mathematical problem (e.g., Decisional Diffie-Hellman or the Quadratic Residuosity Problem). Other, semantically insecure algorithms such as RSA, can be made semantically secure (under stronger assumptions) through the use of random encryption padding schemes such as Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding (OAEP).