Symplectic cut

In physics, the Jeans instability causes the collapse of interstellar gas clouds and subsequent star formation. It occurs when the internal gas pressure is not strong enough to prevent gravitational collapse of a region filled with matter. For stability, the cloud must be in hydrostatic equilibrium, which in case of a spherical cloud translates to:

$\frac{dp}{dr}=-\frac{G\rho (r)M_{enc}(r)}{r^2}$,

where $M_{enc}(r)$ is the enclosed mass, $p$ is the pressure, $\rho (r)$ is the density of the gas at $r$, $G$ is the gravitational constant and $r$ is the radius. The equilibrium is stable if small perturbations are damped and unstable if they are amplified. In general, the cloud is unstable if it is either very massive at a given temperature or very cool at a given mass for gravity to overcome the gas pressure.

Jeans mass

The Jeans mass is named after the British physicist Sir James Jeans, who considered the process of gravitational collapse within a gaseous cloud. He was able to show that, under appropriate conditions, a cloud, or part of one, would become unstable and begin to collapse when it lacked sufficient gaseous pressure support to balance the force of gravity. The cloud is stable for sufficiently small mass (at a given temperature and radius), but once this critical mass is exceeded, it will begin a process of runaway contraction until some other force can impede the collapse. He derived a formula for calculating this critical mass as a function of its density and temperature. The greater the mass of the cloud, the smaller its size, and the colder its temperature, the less stable it will be against gravitational collapse.

The approximate value of the Jeans mass may be derived through a simple physical argument. One begins with a spherical gaseous region of radius $R$, mass $M$, and with a gaseous sound speed $c_s$. Imagine that we compress the region slightly. It takes a time,

$t_{sound}=\frac{R}{c_s}\simeq (5\times 10^5\text{ yr})\left(\frac{R}{0.1\text{ pc}}\right){\left(\frac{c_s}{0.2{\text{ km s}}^{-1}}\right)}^{-1}$

for sound waves to cross the region, and attempt to push back and re-establish the system in pressure balance. At the same time, gravity will attempt to contract the system even further, and will do so on a free-fall time,

$t_{\mathrm{f}\mathrm{f}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{G\rho }}\simeq (2\text{ Myr}){\left(\frac{n}{10^3{\text{ cm}}^{-3}}\right)}^{-1/2}$

where $G$ is the universal gravitational constant, $\rho$ is the gas density within the region, and $n=\rho /\mu$ is the gas number density for mean mass per particle $\mu =3.9\times 10^{-24}$ g, appropriate for molecular hydrogen with 20% helium by number. Now, when the sound-crossing time is less than the free-fall time, pressure forces win, and the system bounces back to a stable equilibrium. However, when the free-fall time is less than the sound-crossing time, gravity wins, and the region undergoes gravitational collapse. The condition for gravitational collapse is therefore:

$t_{\mathrm{f}\mathrm{f}}<t_{sound}.$

The resultant Jeans length ${\lambda }_J$ is approximately:

${\lambda }_J=\frac{c_s}{\sqrt{G\rho }}\simeq (0.4\text{ pc})\left(\frac{c_s}{0.2{\text{ km s}}^{-1}}\right){\left(\frac{n}{10^3{\text{ cm}}^{-3}}\right)}^{-1/2}.$

This length scale is known as the Jeans length. All scales larger than the Jeans length are unstable to gravitational collapse, whereas smaller scales are stable. The Jeans mass $M_J$ is just the mass contained in a sphere of radius $R_J$ ($R_J$ is half the Jeans length):

$M_J=\left(\frac{4\pi }{3}\right)\rho R_J^3=\left(\frac{\pi }{6}\right)\frac{c_s^3}{G^{3/2}{\rho }^{1/2}}\simeq (2{\text{ M}}_{\odot }){\left(\frac{c_s}{0.2{\text{ km s}}^{-1}}\right)}^3{\left(\frac{n}{10^3{\text{ cm}}^{-3}}\right)}^{-1/2}.$

It was later pointed out by other astrophysicists that in fact, the original analysis used by Jeans was flawed, for the following reason. In his formal analysis, Jeans assumed that the collapsing region of the cloud was surrounded by an infinite, static medium. In fact, because all scales greater than the Jeans length are also unstable to collapse, any initially static medium surrounding a collapsing region will in fact also be collapsing. As a result, the growth rate of the gravitational instability relative to the density of the collapsing background is slower than that predicted by Jeans' original analysis. This flaw has come to be known as the "Jeans swindle".

The Jeans instability likely determines when star formation occurs in molecular clouds.

Jeans length

Jeans' length is the critical radius of a cloud (typically a cloud of interstellar dust) where thermal energy, which causes the cloud to expand, is counteracted by gravity, which causes the cloud to collapse. It is named after the British astronomer Sir James Jeans, who concerned himself with the stability of spherical nebula in the early 1900s.

The formula for Jeans Length is:

${\lambda }_J=\sqrt{\frac{15k_{B}T}{4\pi G\mu \rho }},$

where $k_B$ is Boltzmann's constant, $T$ is the temperature of the cloud, $r$ is the radius of the cloud, $\mu$ is the mass per particle in the cloud, $G$ is the Gravitational Constant and $\rho$ is the cloud's mass density (i.e. the cloud's mass divided by the cloud's volume).[1]

Perhaps the easiest way to conceptualize Jeans' Length is in terms of a close approximation, in which we discard the factors $15$ and $4\pi$ and in which we rephrase $\rho$ as $\frac{M}{r^3}$. The formula for Jeans' Length then becomes:

${\lambda }_J\approx \sqrt{\frac{k_{B}T{r}^3}{GM\mu }}.$

It follows immediately that ${\lambda }_J=r$ when $k_{B}T=\frac{GM\mu }{r}$ i.e. the cloud's radius is the Jeans' Length when thermal energy per particle equals gravitational work per particle. At this critical length the cloud neither expands nor contracts. It is only when thermal energy is not equal to gravitational work that the cloud either expands and cools or contracts and warms, a process that continues until equilibrium is reached.

Jeans' Length as oscillation wavelength

The Jeans' Length is the oscillation wavelength below which stable oscillations rather than gravitational collapse will occur.

${\lambda }_J=\frac{2\pi }{k_J}=c_s{\left(\frac{\pi }{G\rho }\right)}^{1/2},$

where G is the gravitational constant, $c_s$ is the sound speed, and $\rho$ is the enclosed mass density.

It is also the distance a sound wave would travel in the collapse time.

Fragmentation

Jeans instability can also give rise to fragmentation in certain conditions. To derive the condition for fragmentation an adiabatic process is assumed in an ideal gas and also a polytropic equation of state is taken. The derivation is showed below through a dimensional analysis:

For adiabatic processes, $P{V}^{\gamma }=\text{constant}\to V\sim P^{-1/\gamma }.$

For an ideal gas, $PV=nRT\to P.P^{-1/\gamma }\sim T\to P\sim T^{\frac{\gamma }{\gamma -1}}.$

Polytropic equation of state, $P=K{\rho }^{\gamma }\to T\sim {\rho }^{\gamma -1}.$

Jeans mass, $M_J\sim T^{3/2}{\rho }^{-1/2}\sim {\rho }^{\frac{3}{2}(\gamma -1)}{\rho }^{-1/2}.$

Thus, $M_J\sim {\rho }^{\frac{3}{2}(\gamma -\frac{4}{3})}.$

If adiabatic index, $\gamma >\frac{4}{3}$ Jeans mass increases with increasing density while if $\gamma <\frac{4}{3}$ Jeans mass decreases with increasing density. During gravitational collapse density always increases, thus in the second case Jeans mass will decrease during collapse allowing smaller overdense regions to collapse leading to fragmentation of the giant molecular cloud. For an ideal monatomic gas, the adiabatic index is 5/3 but in astrophysical objects this value is usually even lower than 1. So the second case is the rule rather than an exception in stars. This is the reason why stars usually form in clusters.

See also

• Bonnor–Ebert mass
• Langmuir waves (similar waves in a plasma)

References

• One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
  
  In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
  
  Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
  
  Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
  
  A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
  
  The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
  
  There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534