Hadamard matrix

In mathematics, a telescoping series is a series whose partial sums eventually only have a fixed number of terms after cancellation. Such a technique is also known as the method of differences.

For example, the series

$\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n(n+1)}}$

simplifies as

${\begin{aligned}\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n(n+1)}}&{}=\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }\left({\frac {1}{n}}-{\frac {1}{n+1}}\right)\\&{}=\lim _{N\to \infty }\sum _{n=1}^{N}\left({\frac {1}{n}}-{\frac {1}{n+1}}\right)\\&{}=\lim _{N\to \infty }\left\lbrack {\left(1-{\frac {1}{2}}\right)+\left({\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{3}}\right)+\cdots +\left({\frac {1}{N}}-{\frac {1}{N+1}}\right)}\right\rbrack \\&{}=\lim _{N\to \infty }\left\lbrack {1+\left(-{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{2}}\right)+\left(-{\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {1}{3}}\right)+\cdots +\left(-{\frac {1}{N}}+{\frac {1}{N}}\right)-{\frac {1}{N+1}}}\right\rbrack =1.\end{aligned}}$

In general

Let $a_{n}$ be a sequence of numbers. Then,

$\sum _{n=1}^{N}\left(a_{n}-a_{n-1}\right)=a_{N}-a_{0},$

and, if $a_{n}\rightarrow 0$

$\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }\left(a_{n}-a_{n-1}\right)=-a_{0}.$

A pitfall

Although telescoping can be a useful technique, there are pitfalls to watch out for:

$0=\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }0=\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }(1-1)=1+\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }(-1+1)=1\,$

is not correct because this regrouping of terms is invalid unless the individual terms converge to 0; see Grandi's series. The way to avoid this error is to find the sum of the first N terms first and then take the limit as N approaches infinity:

${\begin{aligned}\sum _{n=1}^{N}{\frac {1}{n(n+1)}}&{}=\sum _{n=1}^{N}\left({\frac {1}{n}}-{\frac {1}{n+1}}\right)\\&{}=\left(1-{\frac {1}{2}}\right)+\left({\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{3}}\right)+\cdots +\left({\frac {1}{N}}-{\frac {1}{N+1}}\right)\\&{}=1+\left(-{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{2}}\right)+\left(-{\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {1}{3}}\right)+\cdots +\left(-{\frac {1}{N}}+{\frac {1}{N}}\right)-{\frac {1}{N+1}}\\&{}=1-{\frac {1}{N+1}}\to 1\ \mathrm {as} \ N\to \infty .\end{aligned}}$

More examples

• Many trigonometric functions also admit representation as a difference, which allows telescopic cancelling between the consecutive terms.

${\begin{aligned}\sum _{n=1}^{N}\sin \left(n\right)&{}=\sum _{n=1}^{N}{\frac {1}{2}}\csc \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)\left(2\sin \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)\sin \left(n\right)\right)\\&{}={\frac {1}{2}}\csc \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)\sum _{n=1}^{N}\left(\cos \left({\frac {2n-1}{2}}\right)-\cos \left({\frac {2n+1}{2}}\right)\right)\\&{}={\frac {1}{2}}\csc \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)\left(\cos \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)-\cos \left({\frac {2N+1}{2}}\right)\right).\end{aligned}}$

• Some sums of the form

$\sum _{n=1}^{N}{f(n) \over g(n)},$

where f and g are polynomial functions whose quotient may be broken up into partial fractions, will fail to admit summation by this method. In particular, we have

${\begin{aligned}\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {2n+3}{(n+1)(n+2)}}&{}=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {1}{n+1}}+{\frac {1}{n+2}}\right)\\&{}=\left({\frac {1}{1}}+{\frac {1}{2}}\right)+\left({\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{3}}\right)+\left({\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {1}{4}}\right)+\cdots \\&{}\cdots +\left({\frac {1}{n-1}}+{\frac {1}{n}}\right)+\left({\frac {1}{n}}+{\frac {1}{n+1}}\right)+\left({\frac {1}{n+1}}+{\frac {1}{n+2}}\right)+\cdots \\&{}=\infty .\end{aligned}}$

The problem is that the terms do not cancel.

• Let k be a positive integer. Then

$\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n(n+k)}}={\frac {H_{k}}{k}}$

where H_k is the kth harmonic number. All of the terms after 1/(k − 1) cancel.

An application in probability theory

In probability theory, a Poisson process is a stochastic process of which the simplest case involves "occurrences" at random times, the waiting time until the next occurrence having a memoryless exponential distribution, and the number of "occurrences" in any time interval having a Poisson distribution whose expected value is proportional to the length of the time interval. Let X_t be the number of "occurrences" before time t, and let T_x be the waiting time until the xth "occurrence". We seek the probability density function of the random variable T_x. We use the probability mass function for the Poisson distribution, which tells us that

$\Pr(X_{t}=x)={\frac {(\lambda t)^{x}e^{-\lambda t}}{x!}},$

where λ is the average number of occurrences in any time interval of length 1. Observe that the event {X_t ≥ x} is the same as the event {T_x ≤ t}, and thus they have the same probability. The density function we seek is therefore

${\begin{aligned}f(t)&{}={\frac {d}{dt}}\Pr(T_{x}\leq t)={\frac {d}{dt}}\Pr(X_{t}\geq x)={\frac {d}{dt}}(1-\Pr(X_{t}\leq x-1))\\\\&{}={\frac {d}{dt}}\left(1-\sum _{u=0}^{x-1}\Pr(X_{t}=u)\right)={\frac {d}{dt}}\left(1-\sum _{u=0}^{x-1}{\frac {(\lambda t)^{u}e^{-\lambda t}}{u!}}\right)\\\\&{}=\lambda e^{-\lambda t}-e^{-\lambda t}\sum _{u=1}^{x-1}\left({\frac {\lambda ^{u}t^{u-1}}{(u-1)!}}-{\frac {\lambda ^{u+1}t^{u}}{u!}}\right)\end{aligned}}$

The sum telescopes, leaving

$f(t)={\frac {\lambda ^{x}t^{x-1}e^{-\lambda t}}{(x-1)!}}.$

Other applications

For other applications, see:

• Grandi's series;
• Proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges, where one of the proofs uses a telescoping sum;
• Order statistic, where a telescoping sum occurs in the derivation of a probability density function;
• Lefschetz fixed-point theorem, where a telescoping sum arises in algebraic topology;
• Homology theory, again in algebraic topology;
• Eilenberg–Mazur swindle, where a telescoping sum of knots occurs.

Notes and references

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