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| '''Triatomic hydrogen''' or '''H<sub>3</sub>''' is an unstable [[triatomic molecule]] containing only [[hydrogen]]. Since this molecule contains only three atoms of hydrogen it is the simplest triatomic molecule<ref name="Lembo1989">{{cite journal|last=Lembo|first=L. J.|coauthors=H. Helm, D. L. Huestis|year=1989|title=Measurement of vibrational frequencies of the H3 molecule using two-step photoionization|journal=The Journal of Chemical Physics|volume=90|issue=10|page=5299|issn=00219606|doi=10.1063/1.456434}}</ref> and it is just simple enough to numerically solve the quantum mechanics description of the particles. More complex molecules with four electrons or more cannot be quantitatively simulated by computers. Being unstable the molecule breaks up in under a millionth of a second. It's fleeting lifetime makes it rare, but it is quite commonly formed and destroyed in the universe thanks to the commonness of the [[trihydrogen cation]]. The infrared spectrum of H<sub>3</sub> due to vibration and rotation is very similar to that of the ion, H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup>. In the early universe this ability to emit infrared light allowed the primordial hydrogen and helium gas to cool down so as to form stars.
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| ==Formation==
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| The neutral molecule can be formed in a low pressure gas [[discharge tube]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Binder, J.L.; Filby, E.A.;Grubb, A.C. | title = Triatomic Hydrogen | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 126 | pages = 11–12 | year = 1930 | doi = 10.1038/126011c0 | issue=3166}}</ref>
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| A neutral beam of H<sub>3</sub> can be formed from a beam of H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> ions passing through gaseous potassium, which donates an electron to the ion forming K<sup>+</sup>.<ref name="Figger1989"/> Other alkali metal gases such as cesium can be used to donate electrons.<ref name="Laperle2005">{{cite journal|last=Laperle|first=Christopher M|coauthors=Jennifer E Mann, Todd G Clements, Robert E Continetti|year=2005|title=Experimentally probing the three-body predissociation dynamics of the low-lying Rydberg states of H3 and D3|journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series|volume=4|pages=111–117|issn=1742-6588|doi=10.1088/1742-6596/4/1/015}}</ref>H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> ions can be made in a [[duoplasmatron]] where an electric discharge passed through low pressure molecular hydrogen. This causes some H<sub>2</sub> to become H<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup>. Then H<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup> <big>→</big> H<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup> + H. The reaction is exothermic with an energy of 1.7eV, so the ions produced are hot with much vibrational energy. These can cool down via collisions with cooler gas if the pressure is high enough. This is significant because strongly vibrating ions produce strongly vibrating neutral molecules when neutralised according to the [[Franck-Condon principle]].<ref name="Figger1989">{{cite journal|last=Figger|first=H.|coauthors=W. Ketterle, H. Walther|year=1989|title=Spectroscopy of triatomic hydrogen|journal=Zeitschrift fur Physik D: Atoms, Molecules and Clusters|volume=13|issue=2|pages=129–137|issn=0178-7683|doi=10.1007/bf01398582}}</ref>
| | by Nas, is very fitting and the film agrees with it. You may discover this probably the most time-consuming part of building a Word - Press MLM website. Wordpress Content management systems, being customer friendly, can be used extensively to write and manage websites and blogs. Transforming your designs to Word - Press blogs is not that easy because of the simplified way in creating your very own themes. After activating, you will find their website link and get the activation code from their website. <br><br>The Internet is a vast open market where businesses and consumers congregate. If you cherished this article and also you would like to obtain more info with regards to [http://ll.my/wordpressdropboxbackup531037 backup plugin] nicely visit the web site. Some of the Wordpress development services offered by us are:. Our Daily Deal Software plugin brings the simplicity of setting up a Word - Press blog to the daily deal space. So, if you are looking for some option to build a giant e-commerce website, then e-shopping preferable CMS tools will be helpful for you. Akismet is really a sophisticated junk e-mail blocker and it's also very useful thinking about I recieve many junk e-mail comments day-to-day across my various web-sites. <br><br>Usually, Wordpress owners selling the ad space on monthly basis and this means a residual income source. Browse through the popular Wordpress theme clubs like the Elegant Themes, Studio Press, Woo - Themes, Rocket Theme, Simple Themes and many more. You've got invested a great cope of time developing and producing up the topic substance. These frequent updates have created menace in the task of optimization. If you've hosted your Word - Press website on a shared hosting server then it'll be easier for you to confirm the restricted access to your site files. <br><br>Digg Digg Social Sharing - This plugin that is accountable for the floating social icon located at the left aspect corner of just about every submit. This plugin allows a webmaster to create complex layouts without having to waste so much time with short codes. Thus it is difficult to outrank any one of these because of their different usages. The most important plugins you will need are All-in-One SEO Pack, some social bookmarking plugin, a Feedburner plugin and an RSS sign up button. It does take time to come up having a website that gives you the much needed results hence the web developer must be ready to help you along the route. <br><br>Millions of individuals and organizations are now successfully using this tool throughout the world. When you sign up with Wordpress, you gain access to several different templates and plug-in that allow you to customize your blog so that it fits in with your business website design seamlessly. However, there are a few other Wordpress plugins also for its development which requires adding files in your Wordpress setup. Change the entire appearance of you blog using themes with one click. As for performing online business, websites and blogs are the only medium that are available to interact with customers and Word - Press perform this work with the help of cross-blog communication tools, comments and full user registration plug-ins. |
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| ==Breakup==
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| H<sub>3</sub> can break up in the following ways:
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| :<math> H_3 \quad \longrightarrow \quad H_3^+ \ + \ e^- </math> <ref>Helm H. et al.: [http://books.google.de/books?id=njAjmdxOH9oC&pg=PA275|Coupling of Bound States to Continuum States in Neutral Triatomic Hydrogen. in: ''Dissociative Recombination''], ed. S. Guberman, Kluwer Academic, Plenum Publishers, USA, 275-288 (2003) ISBN 0-306-47765-3</ref>
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| :<math> H_3^* \quad \longrightarrow \quad H \ + \ H_2</math>
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| :<math> H_3^* \quad \longrightarrow \quad H \ + \ H \ + \ H </math>
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| ==Properties==
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| The molecule can only exist in an excited state. The different excited electronic states are represented by symbols for the outer electron nLΓ with n the principal quantum number, L is the electronic angular momentum, and Γ is the electronic symmetry selected from the D<sub>3h</sub> group. Extra bracketed symbols can be attached showing vibration in the core: {s,d<sup>l</sup>} with s representing symmetrical stretch, d degenerate mode, and l vibrational angular momentum. Yet another term can be inserted to indicate molecular rotation: (N,G) with N angular momentum apart from electrons as projected on the molecular axis, and G the Hougen's convenient quantum number determined by G=l+λ-K. This is often (1,0), as the rotational states are restricted by the constituent particles all being [[fermion]]s. Examples of these states are:<ref name=couple>{{cite web|url=http://frhewww.physik.uni-freiburg.de/H3/guber4.pdf|title=Coupling of Bound States to Continuum States in Neutral Triatomic Hydrogen|publisher=Department of Molecular and Optical Physics, University of Freiburg, Germany|author=H. Helm, U. Galster, I. Mistrik, U. Müller, and R. Reichle|accessdate=2009-11-25}}</ref> 2sA<sub>1</sub>' 3sA<sub>1</sub>' 2pA<sub>2</sub>" 3dE' 3DE" 3dA<sub>1</sub>' 3pE' 3pA<sub>2</sub>". The 2p<sup>2</sup>A<sub>2</sub>" state has a lifetime of 700 ns. If the molecule attempts to lose energy and go to the [[Repulsive state|repulsive ground state]], it spontaneously breaks up. The lowest energy metastable state, 2sA<sub>1</sub>' has an energy -3.777 eV below the H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> and e<sup>-</sup> state but decays in around 1 [[picosecond|ps]].<ref name=couple/> The unstable ground state designated 2p<sup>2</sup>E' spontaneously breaks up into a H<sub>2</sub> molecule and an H atom.<ref name="Lembo1989"/> Rotationless states have a longer life time than rotating molecules.<ref name="Lembo1989"/>
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| The electronic state for a [[Trihydrogen cation]] with an electron delocalized around it is a Rydberg state.<ref name="Tashiro2002">{{cite journal|last=Tashiro|first=Motomichi|coauthors=Shigeki Kato|year=2002|title=Quantum dynamics study on predissociation of H[sub 3] Rydberg states: Importance of indirect mechanism|journal=The Journal of Chemical Physics|volume=117|issue=5|page=2053|issn=00219606|doi=10.1063/1.1490918}}</ref>
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| The outer electron can be boosted to high Rydberg state, and can ionise if the energy gets to 29562.6 cm<sup>-1</sup> above the 2pA<sub>2</sub>" state, in which case H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> forms.<ref name="Helm1988">{{cite journal|last=Helm|first=Hanspeter|year=1988|title=Measurement of the ionization potential of triatomic hydrogen|journal=Physical Review A|volume=38|issue=7|pages=3425–3429|issn=0556-2791|doi=10.1103/PhysRevA.38.3425}}</ref>
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| ==Shape==
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| The shape of the molecule is predicted to be an [[equilateral triangle]].<ref name="Lembo1989"/> Vibrations can occur in the molecule in two ways, firstly the molecule can expand and contract retaining the equilateral triangle shape (breathing), or one atom can move relative to the others distorting the triangle (bending). The bending vibration has a [[dipole moment]] and thus couples to infrared radiation.<ref name="Lembo1989"/>
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| ==Spectrum==
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| [[Gerhard Herzberg]] was the first to find spectroscopic lines of neutral H<sub>3</sub> when he was 75 years old in 1979. Later he announced that this observation was one of his favourite discoveries.<ref name="Kragh2010">{{cite journal|last=Kragh|first=Helge|year=2010|title=The childhood of H3 and H3+|journal=Astronomy & Geophysics|volume=51|issue=6|pages=6.25–6.27|issn=13668781|doi=10.1111/j.1468-4004.2010.51625.x}}</ref> The lines came about from a cathode discharge tube.<ref name="Kragh2010"/> The reason that earlier observers could not see any H<sub>3</sub> spectral lines, was due to them being swamped by the spectrum of the much more abundant H<sub>2</sub>. The important advance was to separate out H<sub>3</sub> so it could be observed alone. Separation uses mass spectroscopy separation of the positive ions, so that H<sub>3</sub> with mass 3 can be separated from H<sub>2</sub> with mass 2. However there is still come contamination from [[Hydrogen deuteride|HD]], which also has mass 3.<ref name="Figger1989" />
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| The spectrum of H<sub>3</sub> is mainly due to transitions to the longer lived state of 2p<sup>2</sup>A<sub>2</sub>". The spectrum can be measured via a two step photo-ionization method.<ref name="Lembo1989"/>
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| Transitions dropping to the lower 2s<sup>2</sup>A<sub>1</sub>' state are affected by its very short lifetime in what is called [[predissociation]]. The spectral lines involved are broadened.<ref name="Figger1989" /> In the spectrum there are bands due to rotation with P Q and R branches. The R branch is very weak in H<sub>3</sub> [[isotopomer]] but strong with D<sub>3</sub> (trideuterium).<ref name="Figger1989" />
| |
| | |
| {|class="wikitable"
| |
| !lower state
| |
| !upper electronic state
| |
| !breathing vibration
| |
| !bending vibration
| |
| !angular momentum
| |
| !G=λ+l<sub>2</sub>-K
| |
| !wavenumber cm<sup>-1</sup><ref name="Lembo1989"/>
| |
| !wavelength Å
| |
| !frequency THz
| |
| !energy eV
| |
| |-
| |
| |rowspan=9|2p<sup>2</sup>A<sub>2</sub>"
| |
| |3s<sup>2</sup>A<sub>1</sub>'
| |
| |0
| |
| |0
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |16695
| |
| |5990
| |
| |500.5
| |
| |2.069
| |
| |-
| |
| |3d<sup>2</sup>A"
| |
| |0
| |
| |0
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |17297
| |
| |5781
| |
| |518.6
| |
| |2.1446
| |
| |-
| |
| |3d<sup>2</sup>A<sub>1</sub>'
| |
| |0
| |
| |0
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |17742
| |
| |5636
| |
| |531.9
| |
| |2.1997
| |
| |-
| |
| |3p<sup>2</sup>E'
| |
| |1
| |
| |1
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |18521
| |
| |5399
| |
| |555.2
| |
| |2.2963
| |
| |-
| |
| |3p<sup>2</sup>A<sub>2</sub>"
| |
| |0
| |
| |1
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |19451
| |
| |5141.1
| |
| |583.1
| |
| |2.4116
| |
| |-
| |
| |3d<sup>2</sup>E'
| |
| |0
| |
| |1
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |19542
| |
| |5117
| |
| |585.85
| |
| |2.4229
| |
| |-
| |
| |3s<sup>2</sup>A<sub>1</sub>'
| |
| |1
| |
| |0
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |19907
| |
| |5023.39
| |
| |596.8
| |
| |2.46818
| |
| |-
| |
| |3p<sup>2</sup>E'
| |
| |0
| |
| |3
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |19994
| |
| |5001.58
| |
| |599.48
| |
| |2.47898
| |
| |-
| |
| |3d<sup>2</sup>E"
| |
| |1
| |
| |0
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |20465
| |
| |4886.4
| |
| |613.524
| |
| |2.5373
| |
| |-
| |
| |rowspan=3|2s<sup>2</sup>A<sub>1</sub>'
| |
| |3p<sup>2</sup>E'
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |14084
| |
| |7100
| |
| |422.2
| |
| |1.746
| |
| |-
| |
| |3p<sup>2</sup>A<sub>2</sub>"
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |band
| |
| |17857
| |
| |5600
| |
| |535
| |
| |2.2
| |
| |-
| |
| |3p<sup>2</sup>A<sub>2</sub>" Q branch
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |all superimposed
| |
| |band
| |
| |17787
| |
| |5622
| |
| |533
| |
| |2.205
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| The symmetric stretch vibration mode has a wave number of 3213.1 cm<sup>-1</sup> for the 3s<sup>2</sup>A<sub>1</sub>' level and 3168 cm<sup>-1</sup> for 3d<sup>2</sup>E" and 3254 cm<sup>-1</sup> for 2p<sup>2</sup>A<sub>2</sub>".<ref name="Lembo1989"/> The bending vibrational frequencies are also quite similar to those for H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup>.<ref name="Lembo1989"/>
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| | |
| ===Levels===
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| {|class="wikitable"
| |
| !electronic state
| |
| !note
| |
| !wavenumber cm<sup>-1</sup><ref name="Lembo1989"/>
| |
| !frequency THz
| |
| !energy eV
| |
| !life ns
| |
| |-
| |
| |3d<sup>2</sup>A<sub>1</sub>'
| |
| |
| |
| |18511
| |
| |554.95
| |
| |2.2951
| |
| |12.9
| |
| |-
| |
| |3d<sup>2</sup>E"
| |
| |
| |
| |18409
| |
| |551.89
| |
| |2.2824
| |
| |11.9
| |
| |-
| |
| |3d<sup>2</sup>E'
| |
| |
| |
| |18037
| |
| |540.73
| |
| |2.2363
| |
| |9.4
| |
| |-
| |
| |3p<sup>2</sup>A<sub>2</sub>"
| |
| |
| |
| |17789
| |
| |533.30
| |
| |2.2055
| |
| |41.3 4.1
| |
| |-
| |
| |3s<sup>2</sup>A<sub>1</sub>'
| |
| |
| |
| |17600
| |
| |527.638
| |
| |2.1821
| |
| |58.1
| |
| |-
| |
| |3p<sup>2</sup>E'
| |
| |
| |
| |13961
| |
| |418.54
| |
| |1.7309
| |
| |22.6
| |
| |-
| |
| |2p<sup>2</sup>A<sub>2</sub>"
| |
| |longest life
| |
| |993
| |
| |29.76
| |
| |0.12311
| |
| |69700
| |
| |-
| |
| |2p<sup>2</sup>A<sub>2</sub>"
| |
| |predissociation
| |
| |0
| |
| |0
| |
| |0
| |
| |21.8
| |
| |-
| |
| |2p<sup>2</sup>E'
| |
| |dissociation
| |
| |−16674
| |
| |−499.87
| |
| |−2.0673
| |
| |0
| |
| |}
| |
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| ==Cation==
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| The related [[H3+|H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> ion]] is the most prevalent molecular ion in interstellar space. It is believed to have played a crucial role in the cooling of early stars in the history of the Universe through its ability readily to absorb and emit photons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uanews.org/story/h3-molecule-made-universe|title=H3+: The Molecule that Made the Universe|date=April 11, 2012|author=Shelley Littin|accessdate=23 July 2013}}</ref> One of the most important chemical reactions in interstellar space is H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> + e<sup>-</sup> <big>→</big> H<sub>3</sub> and then <big>→</big> H<sub>2</sub> + H.<ref name="Tashiro2002"/>
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| ==Calculations==
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| Since the molecule is relatively simple, researchers have attempted to calculate the properties of the molecule ab-initio from quantum theory. The [[Hartree–Fock equations]] have been used.<ref name="Defranceschi1984">{{cite journal|last=Defranceschi|first=M.|coauthors=M. Suard, G. Berthier|year=1984|title=Numerical solution of Hartree-Fock equations for a polyatomic molecule: Linear H3 in momentum space|journal=International Journal of Quantum Chemistry|volume=25|issue=5|pages=863–867|issn=0020-7608|doi=10.1002/qua.560250508}}</ref>
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| ==Natural occurrence==
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| Triatomic hydrogen will be formed during the neutralization of H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup>. This ion will be neutralised in the presence of gasses other than He or H<sub>2</sub>, as it can abstract an electron. Thus H<sub>3</sub> is formed in the aurora in the ionosphere of Jupiter and Saturn.<ref name="KeilingDonovan2013">{{cite book|last1=Keiling|first1=Andreas|last2=Donovan|first2=Eric|last3=Bagenal|first3=Fran|coauthors=Tomas Karlsson|title=Auroral Phenomenology and Magnetospheric Processes: Earth and Other Planets|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=eisgdDHuQ2UC&pg=RA1-PT376|accessdate=18 January 2014|date=2013-05-09|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781118671535|page=376}}</ref>
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| ==History==
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| [[File:Stark model of triatomic hydrogen.png|thumb|right|Stark's 1913 model of triatomic hydrogen]]
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| [[J. J. Thomson]] observed H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> while experimenting with [[positive ray]]s. He believed that it was an ionised form of H<sub>3</sub> from about 1911. He believed that H<sub>3</sub> was a stable molecule and wrote and lectured about it. He stated that the easiest way to make it was to target potassium hydroxide with cathode rays.<ref name="Kragh2010"/> In 1913 [[Johannes Stark]] proposed that three hydrogen nuclei and electrons could form a stable ring shape. In 1919 [[Niels Bohr]] proposed a structure with three nuclei in a straight line, with three electrons orbiting in a circle around the central nucleus. He believed that H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> would be unstable, but that reacting H<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup> with H<sup>+</sup> could yield neutral H<sub>3</sub>. [[H. Stanley Allen|Stanley Allen]]'s structure was in the shape of a hexagon with alternating electrons and nuclei.<ref name="Kragh2010"/>
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| In 1916 [[Arthur Jeffrey Dempster|Arthur Dempster]] showed that H<sub>3</sub> gas was unstable, but at the same time also confirmed that the cation existed. In 1917 [[Gerald Wendt]] and [[William Duane (physicist)|William Duane]] discovered that hydrogen gas subjected to [[alpha particles]] shrank in volume and thought that diatomic hydrogen was converted to triatomic.<ref name="Kragh2010"/> After this researchers thought that [[active hydrogen]] could be the triatomic form.<ref name="Kragh2010"/> [[Joseph Lévine]] went so far as to postulate that low pressure systems on the Earth happened due to triatomic hydrogen high in the atmosphere.<ref name="Kragh2010"/>
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| In 1920 Wendt and Landauer named the substance "Hyzone" in analogy to [[ozone]] and its extra reactivity over normal hydrogen.<ref name=hyz>{{cite journal|title=Triatomic Hydrogen|authors=Gerald L. Wendt, Robert S. Landauer|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|year=1920|volume=42|issue=5|pages=930–946|doi=10.1021/ja01450a009}}</ref> Earlier Gottfried Wilhelm Osann believed he had discovered a form of hydrogen analogous to ozone which he called "Ozonwasserstoff". It was made by electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid. In those days noone knew that ozone was triatomic so he did not announce triatomic hydrogen.<ref name="Kragh2011">{{cite journal|last=Kragh|first=Helge|year=2011|title=A Controversial Molecule: The Early History of Triatomic Hydrogen|journal=Centaurus|volume=53|issue=4|pages=257–279|issn=00088994|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0498.2011.00237.x}}</ref> This was later shown to be a mixture with sulfur dioxide, and not a new form of hydrogen.<ref name=hyz/>
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| In the 1930s active hydrogen was found to be hydrogen with [[hydrogen sulfide]] contamination, and scientists stopped believing in triatomic hydrogen.<ref name="Kragh2010"/> Quantum mechanical calculations showed that neutral H<sub>3</sub> was unstable but that neutral H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> could exist.<ref name="Kragh2010"/> When the concept of isotopes came along, people such as Bohr then thought there may be an eka-hydrogen with atomic weight 3. This idea was later proven with the existence of [[tritium]], but that was not the explanation of why molecular weight 3 was observed in mass spectrometers.<ref name="Kragh2010"/> J. J. Thomson later believed that the molecular weight 3 molecule he observed was [[Hydrogen deuteride]].<ref name="Kragh2011"/> In the [[Orion nebula]] lines were observed that were attributed to [[nebulium]] which could have been the new element eka-hydrogen, especially when its atomic weight was calculated as near 3. Later this was shown to be ionised nitrogen and oxygen.<ref name="Kragh2010"/>
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| | |
| [[Gerhard Herzberg]] was the first to actually observe the spectrum of neutral H<sub>3</sub>, and this triatomic molecule was the first to have a Rydberg spectrum measured where its own ground state was unstable.<ref name="Lembo1989"/>
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| ==References==
| |
| <references/>
| |
| | |
| ==External links==
| |
| *C. H. Green: "[http://www.jstor.org/pss/54718 Rydberg states of Triatomic Hydrogen]"
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| *{{cite web|url=http://frhewww.physik.uni-freiburg.de/H3/|title=Triatom Hydrogen|publisher=Department of Molecular and Optical Physics, University of Freiburg, Germany|accessdate=2009-11-25}}
| |
| *[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0VYHT2TW-_Q The Elusive H3 Molecule] GlusteeXD 2009 (humour)
| |
| | |
| [[Category:Hydrogen]]
| |
| [[Category:Hydrogen compounds]]
| |
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