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'''''On Physical Lines of Force''''' is a famous four-part paper written by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] published between 1861 and 1862.<ref>http://www.manhattanrarebooks-science.com/maxwell.lines.of.force.htm</ref> In it, Maxwell derived the [[Maxwell's equations|equations of electromagnetism]] in conjunction with a "sea" of "[[molecule|molecular]] [[vortex|vortices]]" which he used to model Faraday's lines of force. Maxwell had studied and commented on the field of electricity and magnetism as early as 1855/6 when '''On Faraday's lines of force'''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20101215085100/http://blazelabs.com/On%20Faraday%27s%20Lines%20of%20Force.pdf On Faraday’s Lines of Force’ by James Clerk Maxwell 1855]</ref> was read to the [[Cambridge Philosophical Society]]. Maxwell made an analogy between the density of this medium and the magnetic permeability, as well as an analogy between the transverse elasticity and the dielectric constant, and using the results of a prior experiment by [[Wilhelm Eduard Weber]] and [[Rudolf Kohlrausch]] performed in 1856, he established a connection between the speed of light and the speed of propagation of waves in this medium.
 
The paper ushered in a new era of classical electrodynamics and catalyzed further progress in the mathematical field of [[vector calculus]]. Because of this, it is considered one of the most historically significant publications in the field of physics and of science in general, comparable with Einstein's ''[[Annus Mirabilis papers]]'' and Newton's ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]''.
 
==Motivations==
In 1856, [[Wilhelm Eduard Weber]] and [[Rudolf Kohlrausch]] performed an experiment with a [[Leyden jar]] and established the ratio of [[electric charge]] as measured [[electrostatics|statically]] to the same electric charge as measured [[electrodynamics|electrodynamically]]. Maxwell used this ratio in [[Isaac Newton]]'s equation for the [[speed of sound]], as applied using the density and transverse elasticity of his sea of molecular vortices.<!-- which were ''&epsilon;''<sub>0</sub> and ''&mu;''<sub>0</sub> ?--> He obtained a value which was very close to the [[speed of light]], as recently measured directly by [[Hippolyte Fizeau]]. Maxwell then wrote<ref>
{{cite book
|author=Charles Coulston Gillispie
|year=
|chapter=James Clerk-Maxwell
|title=[[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]]
|volume= |pages=
|publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]]
|isbn=
}}</ref>
<!-- Some equations should appear here-->
 
<blockquote>"we can scarcely avoid the inference that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena"</blockquote>
 
It was also in this 1861 paper that Maxwell first introduced the [[displacement current]] term which is now included in [[Ampère's circuital law]]. But it wasn't until his next paper in 1864, [[A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field]] that Maxwell used this displacement current term to derive the [[electromagnetic wave equation]].
 
:<math>\mathbf{\nabla}\times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0\mathbf{J} + \underbrace{\mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial }{\partial t}\mathbf{E}}_\mathrm{Maxwell's \ term}</math>
 
==Impact==
The four modern [[Maxwell's equations]], as laid down in a publication by [[Oliver Heaviside]] in 1884, had all appeared in Maxwell's 1861 paper. Heaviside however presented these equations in modern vector format using the [[Nabla symbol|nabla operator]] (∇) devised by [[William Rowan Hamilton]] in 1837,
 
Of Maxwell's work, [[Albert Einstein]] wrote:<ref>
{{cite journal
|author=Albert Einstein
|year=1940
|title=Considerations Concerning the Fundaments of Theoretical Physics
|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]
|volume=91 |issue=2369 |pages=487–492
|doi=10.1126/science.91.2369.487
|bibcode = 1940Sci....91..487E }}</ref>
 
<blockquote>"Imagine [Maxwell's] feelings when the differential equations he had formulated proved to him that electromagnetic fields spread in the form of polarised waves, and at the speed of light!  To few men in the world has such an experience been vouchsafed... it took physicists some decades to grasp the full significance of Maxwell's discovery, so bold was the leap that his genius forced upon the conceptions of his fellow-workers."</blockquote>
 
Other physicists were equally impressed with Maxwell's work, such as [[Richard Feynman]] who commented:<ref>
{{cite book<!--The Original from the ''The Feynman Lectures on Physics'' would be better-->
|author=Robert P. Crease
|year=2008
|title=The Great Equations: Breakthroughs in Science from Pythagoras to Heisenberg
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IU04tZsVjXkC&lpg=PA133&dq=%22Civil%20War%20will%20pale%20into%20provincial%20insignificance%22&pg=PA133#v=onepage&q=%22Civil%20War%20will%20pale%20into%20provincial%20insignificance%22&f=false
|page=133
|publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]]
|isbn=0-393-06204-X
}}</ref>
<blockquote>"From a long view of the history of the world—seen from, say, ten thousand years from now—there can be little doubt that the most significant event of the 19th century will be judged as Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electromagnetism. The American Civil War will pale into provincial insignificance in comparison with this important scientific event of the same decade."</blockquote>
 
==See also==
{{Wikipedia books|Maxwell's equations}}
*''[[A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field]]''
*''[[A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism]]''
*[[Maxwell's equations]]
 
==References==
{{Reflist}}
 
==Further reading==
*{{Cite journal
|author=James C. Maxwell
|year=1861
|title=[[S:On Physical Lines of Force|On Physical Lines of Force]]
|journal=[[Philosophical Magazine]]
|volume= |issue= |pages=
|doi=
}}
*{{Cite web
|author=
|year=
|title=James Clerk Maxwell. On Physical Lines of Force, Parts 1 and 2
|url=http://www.manhattanrarebooks-science.com/maxwell.lines.of.force.htm
|work=ManhattanRareBooks-Science.com
|accessdate=2010-11-20
}} (Contains a picture of Maxwell's vortices)
*{{Cite book
|author=Basil Mahon
|year=2003
|title=The Man who Changed Everything: The Life of James Clerk Maxwell
|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons|Wiley]]
|isbn=978-0-470-86088-5
}}
*{{Cite encyclopedia
|author=James Clerk Maxwell
|year=1878
|title=[[s:Encyclopædia Britannica Ninth Edition/Ether|Ether]]
|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Ninth Edition]]
|volume=8 |pages=568–572
}}
 
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2010}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:On Physical Lines Of Force}}
[[Category:Physics papers]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
[[Category:1861 in science]]
[[Category:1862 in science]]
[[Category:Works originally published in Philosophical Magazine]]

Revision as of 15:24, 16 December 2013

On Physical Lines of Force is a famous four-part paper written by James Clerk Maxwell published between 1861 and 1862.[1] In it, Maxwell derived the equations of electromagnetism in conjunction with a "sea" of "molecular vortices" which he used to model Faraday's lines of force. Maxwell had studied and commented on the field of electricity and magnetism as early as 1855/6 when On Faraday's lines of force[2] was read to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Maxwell made an analogy between the density of this medium and the magnetic permeability, as well as an analogy between the transverse elasticity and the dielectric constant, and using the results of a prior experiment by Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch performed in 1856, he established a connection between the speed of light and the speed of propagation of waves in this medium.

The paper ushered in a new era of classical electrodynamics and catalyzed further progress in the mathematical field of vector calculus. Because of this, it is considered one of the most historically significant publications in the field of physics and of science in general, comparable with Einstein's Annus Mirabilis papers and Newton's Principia Mathematica.

Motivations

In 1856, Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch performed an experiment with a Leyden jar and established the ratio of electric charge as measured statically to the same electric charge as measured electrodynamically. Maxwell used this ratio in Isaac Newton's equation for the speed of sound, as applied using the density and transverse elasticity of his sea of molecular vortices. He obtained a value which was very close to the speed of light, as recently measured directly by Hippolyte Fizeau. Maxwell then wrote[3]

"we can scarcely avoid the inference that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena"

It was also in this 1861 paper that Maxwell first introduced the displacement current term which is now included in Ampère's circuital law. But it wasn't until his next paper in 1864, A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field that Maxwell used this displacement current term to derive the electromagnetic wave equation.

×B=μ0J+μ0ϵ0tEMaxwellsterm

Impact

The four modern Maxwell's equations, as laid down in a publication by Oliver Heaviside in 1884, had all appeared in Maxwell's 1861 paper. Heaviside however presented these equations in modern vector format using the nabla operator (∇) devised by William Rowan Hamilton in 1837,

Of Maxwell's work, Albert Einstein wrote:[4]

"Imagine [Maxwell's] feelings when the differential equations he had formulated proved to him that electromagnetic fields spread in the form of polarised waves, and at the speed of light! To few men in the world has such an experience been vouchsafed... it took physicists some decades to grasp the full significance of Maxwell's discovery, so bold was the leap that his genius forced upon the conceptions of his fellow-workers."

Other physicists were equally impressed with Maxwell's work, such as Richard Feynman who commented:[5]

"From a long view of the history of the world—seen from, say, ten thousand years from now—there can be little doubt that the most significant event of the 19th century will be judged as Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electromagnetism. The American Civil War will pale into provincial insignificance in comparison with this important scientific event of the same decade."

See also

Template:Wikipedia books

References

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Further reading

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  • Template:Cite web (Contains a picture of Maxwell's vortices)
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  3. 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

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  4. One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  5. 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534