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| {{About|the invasive mudsnail ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum''|another mud snail from New Zealand|Amphibola crenata}}
| | == Nike Dámské Boty Kotníkové že sú odhodlaní k tomu == |
| {{Taxobox
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| | name = New Zealand mudsnail
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| | image = New Zealand Mud snails.jpg
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| | status = NE
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| | regnum = [[Animal]]ia
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| | phylum = [[Mollusc]]a
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| | classis = [[Gastropoda]]
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| | unranked_superfamilia =
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| clade [[Caenogastropoda]]<br/>
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| clade [[Hypsogastropoda]]<br/>
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| clade [[Littorinimorpha]]
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| | superfamilia = [[Rissooidea]]
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| | familia = [[Hydrobiidae]]
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| | genus = ''[[Potamopyrgus]]''
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| | species = '''''P. antipodarum'''''
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| | binomial = ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum''
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| | binomial_authority = [[John Edward Gray|J. E. Gray]], 1843<ref name="Dieffenbach">Dieffenbach, E. 1843. ''[http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN26536535X Travels in New Zealand; with contributions to the geography, geology, botany, and natural history of that country]''. In two volumes - Vol. II. - pp. i-iv [= 1-4], 1-396, pl. [1]. London. (Murray), page 241.</ref>
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| | synonyms = *''Amnicola antipodanum'' <small>[[John Edward Gray|J. E. Gray]], 1843</small>
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| *''Potamopyrgus jenkinsi'' <small>([[Edgar Albert Smith|E. A. Smith]], 1889)</small>
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| }}
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| The '''New Zealand mudsnail''', ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'', sometimes previously known as ''Potamopyrgus jenkinsi'', is a [[species]] of very small or minute [[freshwater snail]] with a [[gill]] and an [[Operculum (gastropod)|operculum]], an aquatic [[gastropod]] [[mollusk]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Hydrobiidae]].
| | Apríl 14, 2009 v nástrojoch Niet pochýb o [http://www.megatechpakistan.com/test/images/arrows.asp?p=138-Nike-Dámské-Boty-Kotníkové Nike Dámské Boty Kotníkové] tom, [http://www.ksdesign.cz/ckfinder/plugins/dummy/license.asp?j=91-Hollister-Pánská-Košile Hollister Pánská Košile] sme v láske s našimi nástrojmi a našich strojov. Všetci ľudia sú v podstate jaskynný ľudia. " , "Prestávka, o," ut diadém 'w' lán reg ": ev. Ja, "naše. Zdá sa, že ako ľudia prepnúť z pracovnej plochy, kde Facebook zobrazuje viac reklám na stránke na mobil, Facebook je zarábať menej príjmov z reklám na užívateľa v jeho najdôležitejších trhoch. Zatiaľ čo rast užívateľ pomohol celkový nárast príjmov, v USA a Kanade Facebook zarobil 2,85 dolárov na reklamy na užívateľa (ARPU), reklamy v 1. <br><br>Celulitída podľa triedy jeden ar zvyčajne tie menšie. Ukážu veľmi menej klinických príznakov a vôľu a bude len ťažko predstaviť žiadne zmeny fyzicky výnimkou jamky na postihnuté oblasti. Len jadro, kto to je. Vždycky viac robiť, a jeho zameranie je na tom, kde vedľa 10X bude pochádzať. <br><br>Ďakujem za krásny pobyt. Podľa môjho názoru, je to perfektné dovolenku, pretože Hilton Amsterdam bol perfektný hotel. Denná Po. Aktivisti v Newporte hovoria, že sú odhodlaní k tomu, že Rada nahradiť Chartistthemed nástennú maľbu, ktorá bola zbúraná v centre mesta vo štvrtok. <br><br>Aj keď tento proces je vrh horký, ale výsledok je sladká v dlhodobom horizonte. Čo chcem dodať, že článok, ktorý sa venoval yoursel sa musí vytvoriť sami.. Propagácie vyhľadávače a webové stránky budú trvať nejaký čas, aby skutočne pochopili a dokonalé. Mám ešte nejaké určité pochybnosti však, ak je niekto na rozdiel od týchto WebDirectory tvorcov, ktorí naozaj pochopiť, ako fungujú a ako, aby čo najviac z nich. <br><br>Ale no tak, CNN iReport!. Dva možné dôvody, ktoré ma napadlo a videli v minulých 1) kariet vydaných európskymi bankami pri použití on-line cezhraničný nie sú zvyčajne podporujú AVS kontroly. Po prvé, mám Netflix. Mám Netflix aplikácie / kanál, ale keď sa pokúsim aktivovať svoje 3DS, ako počítač dokončí aktiváciou, na Netflix kanál. <br><br>Kým leňošenie na pláži alebo pri bazéne, recepcia pláž / bazén prinesie nám zadarmo čerstvé ovocie a sorbet sa nám zachovať chladnú hlavu, spolu s nekonečnou zásobu balenej vody (náš apartmán bol tiež zásobené s balenou vodou). Moja neter nikdy zažil swimup bar pred a ona bola nadšená možnosťou objednania nápoj z bazéna. <br><br>Platform for Privacy Preferences Project (P3P) umožňuje webové stránky, aby vyjadrili svoje zásady ochrany osobných údajov v štandardnom formáte, ktorý je možné získať automaticky a ľahko interpretovať užívateľom agentmi. P3P užívateľských agentov umožní užívateľom, [http://www.sados.sk/data/file/files/res.asp?o=184-Ray-Ban-New-Wayfarer-Sk Ray Ban New Wayfarer Sk] aby boli informovaní o postupoch webe (v oboch strojov a humanreadable formátov) a [http://www.cvcroznava.sk/data/database/gallery.asp?a=111-Nike-Air-Max-90-Predaj Nike Air Max 90 Predaj] automatizovať rozhodovanie na základe týchto postupov v prípade potreby.<ul> |
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| It is an [[invasive species]] in many countries, where populations of the snail can reach phenomenal densities.
| | <li>[http://www.proyectoalba.com.ar/spip.php?article66/ http://www.proyectoalba.com.ar/spip.php?article66/]</li> |
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| == Forms ==
| | <li>[http://crewroomonline.com/index.php?option=com_kunena&view=post&do=new&Itemid=140 http://crewroomonline.com/index.php?option=com_kunena&view=post&do=new&Itemid=140]</li> |
| * ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'' f. ''carinata'' (J. T. Marshall, 1889)
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| | | <li>[http://www.forestry.crs.gov.ng/index.php/forum/3-suggestion-box/565752-hollister-obleceni-levne-ktore-sa-zufalo-snazia-najat-kvalifikovanych-ludi-jedna-sa-o-montaz-pripomienkou-toho.html#569443 http://www.forestry.crs.gov.ng/index.php/forum/3-suggestion-box/565752-hollister-obleceni-levne-ktore-sa-zufalo-snazia-najat-kvalifikovanych-ludi-jedna-sa-o-montaz-pripomienkou-toho.html#569443]</li> |
| ==Shell description== | | |
| [[Image:Potamopyrgus antipodarum shell.png|left|thumb|Shells of ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'' f. ''carinata'' (left)<br>and ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'' (right).<br>Scale bar is 0.5 cm.]]
| | <li>[http://youiv.com/home.php?mod=spacecp&ac=blog&blogid= http://youiv.com/home.php?mod=spacecp&ac=blog&blogid=]</li> |
| [[File:Mudsnail2.jpg|thumb|left|A group of mudsnails of all growth sizes from juvenile to adults, compared to an [[Dime (United States coin)|American 10 cent coin]], which is 18 mm in diameter.]]
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| The [[gastropod shell|shell]] of ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'' is elongated and has dextral coiling. The shell has 7 or 8 [[whorl (mollusc)|whorls]]. Between whorls are deep grooves.
| | <li>[http://1.ts.cn/home.php?mod=space&uid=17555&do=blog&quickforward=1&id=5775206 http://1.ts.cn/home.php?mod=space&uid=17555&do=blog&quickforward=1&id=5775206]</li> |
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| It is an [[operculum (gastropod)|operculate]] snail, with a 'lid' that can seal the opening of its shell. The [[Operculum (gastropod)|operculum]] is thin and corneus with an off-centre nucleus from which paucispiral markings (with few coils) radiate. The [[aperture (mollusc)|aperture]] is oval and its height is less than the height of the [[spire (mollusc)|spire]].
| | </ul> |
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| Some morphs, including many from the Great Lakes, exhibit a keel in the middle of each whorl; others, excluding those from the Great Lakes, exhibit [[periostracum|periostracal]] ornamentation such as spines for anti–predator defense.<ref name="Zaranko">Zaranko, D. T., D. G. Farara and F. G. Thompson. 1997. ''Another exotic mollusk in the Laurentian Great Lakes: the New Zealand native Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Gray 1843) (Gastropoda, Hydrobiidae)''.</ref><ref name="Holomuzki 2006">Holomuzki, J. R. and B. J. F. Biggs. 2006. ''Habitat–specific variation and performance trade–offs in shell armature of New Zealand mudsnails''. Ecology 87(4):1038–1047.</ref><ref name="Levri 2007">Levri, E.P., A.A. Kelly and E. Love. 2007. ''The invasive New Zealand mud snail (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) in Lake Erie''. Journal of Great Lakes Research 33: 1–6.</ref><ref name=usgs>{{cite web | url = http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=1008 | title = Potamopyrgus antipodarum | accessdate = 25 May 2013 | author = Benson, A.J., Kipp, R.M., Larson, J. & Fusaro, A. | date = 2013 | work = USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database | publisher = U.S. Geological Survey}}</ref>
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| Shell colors vary from gray and dark brown to light brown.
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| The average height of the shell is approximately 5 mm (<math>\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{5} \end{matrix}</math> in); maximum size is approximately 12 mm (<math>\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}</math> in). The snail is usually 4–6 mm in length in the [[Great Lakes]], but grows to 12 mm in its native range.<ref name="Zaranko"/><ref name="Levri 2007"/><ref name=usgs/>
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| == Original description ==
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| This species was originally described as ''Amnicola antipodarum'' in 1843 by [[John Edward Gray]]:
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| "Inhabits New Zealand, in fresh water. Shell ovate, acute, subperforated (generally covered with a brown earthy coat); whorls rather rounded, mouth ovate, axis 3 lines; operculum horny and subspiral: variety, spire rather longer, whorls more rounded. This species is like ''Paludina nigra'' of Quoy and Gaimard, but the operculum is more spiral. Quoy described the operculum as concentric, but figured it subspiral. ''Paludina ventricosa'' of Quoy is evidently a Nematura."<ref name="Dieffenbach"/> | |
| {{clearleft}}
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| ==Distribution==
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| This species is [[endemism|endemic]] to [[New Zealand]]. It lives in freshwater streams and lakes in New Zealand and adjacent small islands.<ref name="Hall 2003"/>
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| ===Nonindigenous distribution===
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| While [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to New Zealand, the New Zealand mudsnail has spread widely and has become [[Naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] and an [[invasive species]] in many areas including: Australia, Tasmania, Asia (Japan,<ref name="Davidson"/> in [[Garmat Ali River]] in Iraq since 2008<ref>Murtada D. Naser & Mikhail O. Son. 2009. [http://www.aquaticinvasions.ru/2009/AI_2009_4_2_Naser_Son.pdf ''First record of the New Zealand mud snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Gray 1843) from Iraq: the start of expansion to Western Asia?'']. Aquatic Invasions, Volume 4, Issue 2: 369-372, DOI 10.3391/ai.2009.4.2.11.</ref>), Europe (since 1859 in England), and North America (USA and Canada: Thunder Bay in Ontario since 2001, British Columbia since July 2007<ref name="Davidson">''Timothy M. Davidson, Valance E. F. Brenneis, Catherine de Rivera, Robyn Draheim & Graham E. Gillespie. [http://www.aquaticinvasions.ru/2008/AI_2008_3_3_Davidson_etal.pdf Northern range expansion and coastal occurrences of the New Zealand mud snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Gray, 1843) in the northeast Pacific]'' Aquatic Invasions (2008) Volume 3, Issue 3: 349-353.</ref>), most likely due to inadvertent human intervention.
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| === Invasion in Europe ===
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| * [[List of non-marine molluscs of Great Britain|England]] since 1859<ref name="Cejka"/> - probably the first introduction in Europe
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| * [[List of non-marine molluscs of Germany|Germany]]
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| * [[List of non-marine molluscs of Poland|Poland]]
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| * Western Baltic Sea since 1887<ref>Dmitry P. Filippenko & Mikhail O. Son. ''[http://www.aquaticinvasions.ru/2008/AI_2008_3_3_Filippenko_Son.pdf The New Zealand mud snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Gray, 1843) is colonising the artificial lakes of Kaliningrad City, Russia (Baltic Sea Coast)]''. Aquatic Invasions (2008) Volume 3, Issue 3: 345-347.</ref>
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| * Russia
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| * Azov [[Black Sea]] region, since 1951,<ref name="Son"/> Ukraine since 1951 in brackish waters, and since 2005 in freshwater<ref>Boris Alexandrov, Alexandr Boltachev, Taras Kharchenko, Artiom Lyashenko, Mikhail Son, Piotr Tsarenko & Valeriy Zhukinsky. ''[http://www.aquaticinvasions.ru/2007/AI_2007_2_3_Alexandrov_etal.pdf Trends of aquatic alien species invasions in Ukraine]''. Aquatic Invasions (2007) Volume 2, Issue 3: 215-242.</ref>
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| * Catalonia in Spain, since 1952<ref name="Radea"/>
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| * Mediterranean region of France, since the end of 1950s<ref name="Radea"/>
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| * Italy, since 1961<ref name="Radea"/>
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| * Turkey<ref name="Radea"/>
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| * [[List of non-marine molluscs of the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]], since September 3, 1981<ref>Kuchař P. ''Potamopyrgus jenkinsi poprvé v Československu''. Źiva, Prague, 31(1): page 23. (in Czech).</ref>
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| * [[List of non-marine molluscs of Slovakia|Slovakia]], since 1986<ref name="Cejka">Čejka T., Dvořák L. & Košel V. 2008: [http://mollusca.sav.sk/pdf/7/7.Cejka.pdf Present distribution of ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'' (Gray, 1843) (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in the Slovak Republic]. - Malacologica Bohemoslovaca, 7: 21-25. Online serial at <http://mollusca.sav.sk> 25-February-2008.</ref>
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| * Greece, since November 2007<ref name="Radea">Canella Radea, Ioanna Louvrou and Athena Economou-Amilli ''[http://www.aquaticinvasions.ru/2008/AI_2008_3_3_Radea_etal.pdf First record of the New Zealand mud snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum J.E. Gray 1843 (Mollusca: Hydrobiidae) in Greece – Notes on its population structure and associated microalgae]''. Aquatic Invasions (2008) Volume 3, Issue 3: 341-344</ref>
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| * and other areas
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| ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'' occurs in nearly the whole of Europe. It does not occur in Iceland, Albania, Bulgaria or the former Yugoslavia.<ref name="Son">Mikhail O. Son. ''[http://www.aquaticinvasions.ru/2008/AI_2008_3_3_Son.pdf Rapid expansion of the New Zealand mud snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Gray, 1843) in the Azov-Black Sea Region]''. Aquatic Invasions (2008) Volume 3, Issue 3: 335-340.</ref>
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| ===Distribution within the USA===
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| [[File:Potamopyrgus antipodarum map.png|thumb|Distribution of ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'' within the USA in 2009.]]
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| First detected in the [[United States]] in [[Idaho]]'s [[Snake River]] in 1987, the mudsnail has since spread to the [[Madison River]], [[Firehole River]], and other watercourses around [[Yellowstone National Park]]; samples have been discovered throughout the western United States.<ref name=usgs/> Although the exact means of transmission is unknown, it is likely that it was introduced in water transferred with live [[game fish]] and has been spread by [[ship ballast]] or contaminated recreational equipment such as wading gear.<ref name="Montana" />
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| The New Zealand mudsnail has no natural predators or parasites in the United States, and consequently has become an invasive species. Densities have reached greater than 300,000 individuals per m² in the Madison River. It can reach concentrations greater than 500,000 per m², endangering the [[food chain]] by outcompeting native snails and water insects for food, leading to sharp declines in native populations.<ref>{{cite web | author=Benson, Amy| year=2006| title=New Zealand Mudsnail: Potamopyrgus antipodarum | work=Florida Integrated Science Center | url=http://cars.er.usgs.gov/Nonindigenous_Species/New_Zealand_Mudsnail/new_zealand_mudsnail.html | accessdate=2006-05-04}}</ref> Fish populations then suffer because the native snails and insects are their main food source.
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| Mudsnails are impressively resilient. A snail can live for 24 hours without water. They can however survive for up to 50 days on a damp surface,<ref name="research summary">{{cite web|last=Davis |first=Ken W. | date=2004-02-24 |url=http://www.wildlifefiles.com/pdfs/NZMS%20Research%20Findings%2022304.pdf |title=Select Research Findings on the New Zealand Mudsnail (''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'') |format=PDF |pages=1 |publisher=Wildlife Survey & Photo Service |accessdate=2006-05-07 }}</ref> giving them ample time to be transferred from one body of water to another on fishing gear. The snails may even survive passing through the digestive systems of fish and birds.
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| Mudsnails have now spread from Idaho to most western states of the U.S., including [[Wyoming]], [[California]], [[Nevada]], [[Oregon]] and [[Montana]]. Environmental officials for these states have attempted to slow the spread of the snail by advising the public to keep an eye out for the snails, and bleach or heat any gear which may contain mudsnails. Rivers have also been temporarily closed to fishing to avoid anglers spreading the snails.<ref>{{cite news | title = Non-native snail turns up in Truckee River | date = 20 May 2013 | work = Elko Daily Free Press | page = 4}}</ref><ref name="Putah Creek">{{cite web | title=News Release - Discovery of Invasive New Zealand Mud Snail Forces Temporary Closure of Putah Creek | publisher=California Department of Fish and Game | url=http://www.dfg.ca.gov/news/news03/03119.html | date=2003-12-16 | accessdate=2006-05-07}}{{deadlink|date=December 2013}}</ref>
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| The snails grow to a smaller size in the U.S. than in their native habitat, reaching 6 mm (¼ in) at most in parts of Idaho, but can be much smaller making them easy to overlook when cleaning fishing gear.
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| Clonal species like the New Zealand mudsnail can often develop clonal lines with quite diverse appearances, called [[Morph (zoology)|morph]]s. Until 2005, all the snails found in the western states of the U.S. were believed to be from a single line. However a second morph has been identified in Idaho's Snake River. It grows to a similar size but has a distinctive appearance. (It has been nicknamed the salt-and-pepper mudsnail due to the final whorl being lighter than the rest of the shell.) This morph has apparently been present in the area for several years before being identified correctly as a distinct morph of ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum''. It dominates the typical morph where they overlap, and has a much higher prevalence of males.<ref name="second morph">{{cite web | title=Western USA ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'' morphs | publisher=Department of Ecology, Montana State University-Bozeman | url=http://www.esg.montana.edu/aim/mollusca/nzms/morphs.html | date=2006-02-22 | accessdate=2006-05-07}}</ref>
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| In 1991 the New Zealand mudsnail was discovered in [[Lake Ontario]],<ref>Levri, E. P., Dermott, R. M., Lunnen, S. J., Kelly, A. A., and Ladson, T. (2008). [http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/e/p/epl1/Levrietal.Ontario08.pdf The distribution of the invasive New Zealand mud snail (Potamopyrgus antipodarm) in Lake Ontario], ''Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management'' 11(4), 412-421.</ref> and has now been found in four of the five [[Great Lakes]]. In 2005 and 2006, it was found to be widespread in Lake Erie.<ref>[http://www.iaglr.org/jglr/release/33/33_1_1-6.php New Zealand Mud Snails Invade Lake Erie!], International Association for Great Lakes Research, 26 March 2007.</ref> By 2006 it had spread to [[Twin Ports|Duluth-Superior]] Harbour and the freshwater estuary of the [[Saint Louis River]].<ref>{{cite news | title=Invasive snail found in Minn. harbor | date=May 3, 2006 | publisher=Associated Press | url=http://www.seattlepi.com/national/1501AP_Invasive_Species_Snail.html | deadurl=yes}} {{Dead link|date=December 2011|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> It was found to be inhabiting [[Lake Michigan]], after scientists took water [[sample (material)|samples]] in early summer of 2008.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20080815/snail_michigan_080814/20080815?hub=SciTech|title=Worrying invasive snail found in Lake Michigan|date=2008-08-16|publisher=The Associated Press}}</ref> The snails in the Great Lakes represent a different line from those found in western states, and were probably introduced indirectly through Europe.<ref name="second morph"/>
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| In 2009, the species was discovered in [[Capital Lake]] in Olympia, Washington. The lake has been closed to all public use, including boating and other recreation, since 2009.<ref>{{ cite news | title=Snail seclusion successful | last=Dodge | first=John | date=19 October 2010 | work=The Olympian | url=http://www.theolympian.com/2010/10/19/1408405/snail-seclusion-successful.html }}</ref> A heavy cold snap in 2013, combined with a drawdown in water level in preparation, was roughly estimated to have killed 40–60% of the mudsnail population.<ref>{{cite news | title=Freeze could help kill Capitol Lake's mudsnail population | last=Shannon | first=Brad | date=4 December 2013 | work=The News Tribune | url=http://www.thenewstribune.com/2013/12/04/2930386/freeze-could-help-kill-capitol.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Cold estimated to have killed half of snails in Capitol Lake | last=Shannon | first=Brad | date=26 December 2013 | work=The Olympian | url=http://www.theolympian.com/2013/12/26/2902158/cold-estimated-to-have-killed.html }}</ref>
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| In 2010, the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' reported that the New Zealand mudsnail had infested watersheds in the [[Santa Monica Mountains]], posing serious threats to native species and complicating efforts to improve stream-water quality for the endangered [[steelhead trout]]. According to the article, the snails have expanded "from the first confirmed sample in Medea Creek in [[Agoura Hills]] to nearly 30 other stream sites in four years." Researchers at the Santa Monica Bay Restoration Commission believe that the snails' expansion may have been expedited after the mollusks traveled from stream to stream on the gear of contractors and volunteers.<ref name=latmudsnail>[http://www.latimes.com/news/la-me-snail30-2010mar30,0,2859185.story Hard-to-kill snails infest Santa Monica Mountain watersheds] Even Formula 409 has proven ineffective at destroying the New Zealand mudsnail, an asexually reproducing invasive species that poses a threat to steelhead restoration efforts and native creatures.</ref>
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| {{As of|2010|09|21}} In Colorado, Boulder Creek and Dry Creek have infestations of New Zealand mudsnails. The snails have been present in Boulder Creek since 2004 and were discovered in Dry Creek in Sept. 2010. Access to both creeks has been closed to help avoid spread of the snails.
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| ==Ecology==
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| ===Habitat===
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| The snail tolerates [[siltation]], thrives in disturbed watersheds, and benefits from high nutrient flows allowing for filamentous green algae growth. It occurs amongst macrophytes and prefers [[littoral]] zones in lakes or slow streams with silt and organic matter substrates, but tolerates high flow environments where it can burrow into the sediment.<ref name="Zaranko"/><ref name= usgs/><ref name="Collier">Collier, K. J., R. J. Wilcock and A. S. Meredith. 1998. ''Influence of substrate type and physico–chemical conditions on macroinvertebrate faunas and biotic indices in some lowland Waikato, New Zealand, streams''. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 32(1):1–19.</ref><ref name="Holomuzki 1999">Holomuzki, J. R. and B. J. F. Biggs. 1999. ''Distributional responses to flow disturbance by a stream–dwelling snail''. Oikos 87(1):36–47.</ref><ref name="Holomuzki 2000">Holomuzki, J. R. and B. J. F. Biggs. 2000. ''Taxon–specific responses to high–flow disturbances in streams: implications for population persistence''. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 19(4):670–679.</ref><ref name="Negovetic">Negovetic, S. and J. Jokela. 2000. ''Food choice behaviour may promote habitat specificity in mixed populations of clonal and sexual Potamopyrgus antipodarum.'' Experimental Ecology 60(4):435–441.</ref><ref name="Richards">Richards, D. C., L. D. Cazier and G. T. Lester. 2001. ''Spatial distribution of three snail species, including the invader Potamopyrgus antipodarum, in a freshwater spring''. Western North American Naturalist 61(3):375–380.</ref><ref name="Weatherhead">Weatherhead, M. A. and M. R. James. 2001. ''Distribution of macroinvertebrates in relation to physical and biological variables in the littoral zone of nine New Zealand lakes''. [[Hydrobiologia]] 462(1–3):115–129.</ref><ref name="Death">Death, R. G., B. Baillie and P. Fransen. 2003. ''Effect of Pinus radiata logging on stream invertebrate communities in Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand''. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 37(3):507–520.</ref><ref name="Schreiber 2003">Schreiber, E. S. G., G. P. Quinn and P. S. Lake. 2003. ''Distribution of an alien aquatic snail in relation to flow variability, human activities and water quality''. Freshwater Biology 48(6):951–961.</ref><ref name="Suren">Suren, A. M. 2005. Effects of deposited sediment on patch selection by two grazing stream invertebrates. [[Hydrobiologia]] 549(1):205–218.</ref>
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| In the Great Lakes, the snail reaches densities as high as 5,600 per m² and is found at depths of 4–45 m on a silt and sand substrate.<ref name="Zaranko"/><ref name="Levri 2007"/><ref name=usgs/>
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| This species is [[euryhaline]], establishing populations in fresh and [[brackish water]]. The optimal [[salinity]] is probably near or below 5 [[Parts per trillion|ppt]], but ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'' is capable of feeding, growing, and reproducing at salinities of 0–15 ppt and can tolerate 30–35 ppt for short periods of time.<ref name="Zaranko"/><ref name=usgs/><ref name="Jacobsen">Jacobsen, R. and V. E. Forbes. 1997. ''Clonal variation in life–history traits and feeding rates in the gastropod, Potamopyrgus antipodarum: performance across a salinity gradient''. Functional Ecology 11(2):260–267.</ref><ref name="Leppäkoski">Leppäkoski, E. and S. Olenin. 2000. ''Non–native species and rates of spread: lessons from the brackish Baltic Sea''. Biological Invasions 2(2):151–163.</ref><ref name="Costil">Costil, K., G.B. J. Dussart and J. Daquzan. 2001. Biodiversity of aquatic gastropods in the Mont St–Michel basin (France) in relation to salinity and drying of habitats. Biodiversity and Conservation 10(1):1–18.</ref><ref name="Gerard">Gerard, C., A. Blanc and K. Costil. 2003. ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Mollusca: Hydrobiidae) in continental aquatic gastropod communities: impact of salinity and trematode parasitism''. [[Hydrobiologia]] 493(1–3):167–172.</ref>
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| It tolerates temperatures of 0–34°C.<ref name="Zaranko"/><ref name=usgs/><ref>Cox, T. J. and J. C. Rutherford. 2000. ''Thermal tolerances of two stream invertebrates exposed to diurnally varying temperature''. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 34(2):203–208.</ref>
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| ===Feeding habits=== | |
| ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'' is a nocturnal grazer-[[scraper (biology)|scraper]], feeding on plant and animal [[detritus]], epiphytic and periphytic [[algae]], sediments and [[diatom]]s.<ref name="Zaranko"/><ref name=usgs/><ref name="Broekhuizen">Broekhuizen, N., S. Parkyn and D. Miller. 2001. Fine sediment effects on feeding and growth in the invertebrate grazer Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Gastropoda, Hydrobiidae) and Deleatidium sp. (Ephemeroptera, Letpophlebiidae). [[Hydrobiologia]] 457(1–3):125–132.</ref><ref name="James">James, M. R., I. Hawes and M. Weatherhead. 2000. ''Removal of settled sediments and periphyton from macrophytes by grazing invertebrates in the littoral zone of a large oligotrophic lake''. Freshwater Biology 44(2):311–326.</ref><ref name="Kelly">Kelly, D. J. and I. Hawes. 2005. ''Effects of invasive macrophytes on littoral–zone productivity and foodweb dynamics in a New Zealand high–country lake''. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24(2):300–320.</ref><ref name="Parkyn">Parkyn, S. M., J. M. Quinn, T. J. Cox and N. Broekhuizen. 2005. ''Pathways of N and C uptake and transfer in stream food webs: an isotope enrichment experiment''. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24(4):955–975.</ref>
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| ===Life cycle===
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| ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'' is [[ovoviviparous]] and [[parthenogenic]]. This means that they can reproduce [[Asexual reproduction|asexually]]; females "are born with developing embryos in their reproductive system." Native populations in New Zealand consist of [[diploid]] sexual and [[triploid]] parthenogenically cloned females, as well as sexually functional males (less than 5% of the total population). All introduced populations in North America are clonal, consisting of genetically identical females.<ref name=usgs/>
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| As the snails can produce both sexually and asexually, the snail has been used as a model organism for studying the costs and benefits of sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction allows all members of a population to produce offspring and avoids the costs involved in finding mates. However, asexual offspring are [[clonal]], so lack variation. This makes them susceptible to parasites, as the entire clonal population has the same resistance mechanisms. Once a strain of parasite has overcome these mechanisms, it is able to infect any member of the population. Sexual reproduction mixes up resistance genes through [[crossing over]] and the random assortment of gametes in [[meiosis]], meaning the members of a sexual population will all have subtly different combinations of resistance genes. This variation in resistance genes means no one parasite strain is able to sweep through the whole population. New Zealand mudsnails are commonly infected with [[trematode]] parasites, which are particularly abundant in shallow water, but scarce in deeper water. As predicted, sexual reproduction dominates in shallow water, due to its advantages in parasite resistance. Asexual reproduction is dominant in the deeper water of lakes, as the scarcity of parasites means that the advantages of resistance are outweighed by the costs of sexual reproduction.<ref>Fox J., Dybdahl M., Jokela J., Lively C. (1996). Genetic structure of coexisting sexual and clonal subpopulations in a freshwater snail (''Potamopyrgus antipodarum''). ''Evolution''. 50 (4): 1541-1548</ref>
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| Each female can produce between 20 and 120 [[embryo]]s.<ref name="Montana">{{cite web | title=Biology | work=New Zealand mudsnails in the Western USA | publisher=Montana State University | url=http://www.esg.montana.edu/aim/mollusca/nzms/biology.html | accessdate=2006-05-04}}</ref> The snail produces approximately 230 young per year. Reproduction occurs in spring and summer, and the life cycle is annual.<ref name="Zaranko"/><ref name=usgs/><ref name="Hall 2003">Hall, R. O. Jr., J. L. Tank and M. F. Dybdahl. 2003. Exotic snails dominate nitrogen and carbon cycling in a highly productive stream. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 1(8):407–411.</ref><ref name="Gerard"/><ref name="Schreiber 1998">Schreiber, E. S. G., A. Glaister, G. P. Quinn and P. S. Lake. 1998. ''Life history and population dynamics of the exotic snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Prosobranchia: Hydrobiidae) in Lake Purrumbete, Victoria, Australia''. Marine and Freshwater Research 49(1):73–78.</ref><ref>Lively, C. M. and J. Jokela. 2002. ''Temporal and spatial distribution of parasites and sex in a freshwater snail''. Evolutionary Ecology Research 4(2):219–226.</ref> The rapid reproduction rate of the snail has caused the numbers of individuals to increase rapidly in new environments. The highest concentration of New Zealand mudsnails ever reported was in [[Lake Zurich]], [[Switzerland]], where the species colonized the entire lake within seven years to a density of 800,000 per m².<ref name=usgs/><ref>{{cite web | year=2006| title=New Zealand mudsnail (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) | work=Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks | url=http://www.kdwp.state.ks.us/news/fishing/aquatic_nuisance_species/aquatic_nuisance_species_list/new_zealand_mudsnail
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| ===Parasites===
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| In their native habitat, the snails pose no problem because of a [[Trematoda|trematode]] parasite which sterilizes many snails, keeping the populations to a manageable size. However they have become an invasive pest species elsewhere in the world in the absence of these parasites.<ref name=usgs/>
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| The parasites of this species include at least 11 species of Trematoda.<ref name=usgs/><ref>[http://www.indiana.edu/~curtweb/trematodes/Winterbourne.htm Larval Trematoda: Winterbourne]</ref>
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| Common parasites of this snail include trematodes of the genus ''[[Microphallus]]''.<ref name=usgs/><ref>Dybdahl, M. F. and A. C. Krist. 2004. Genotypic vs. condition effects on parasite–driven rare advantage. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 17(5):967–973.</ref><ref>[http://www.indiana.edu/~curtweb/Research/About%20Microphallus.html About Microphallus]</ref>
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| === Other interspecific relationship ===
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| ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'' can survive passage through the [[Gut (zoology)|guts]] of fish and birds and may be transported by these animals.<ref>Aamio, K. and E. Bornsdorff. 1997. ''Passing the gut of juvenile flounder Platichthys flesus (L.) – differential survival of zoobenthic prey species''. Marine Biology 129: 11–14.</ref>
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| It can also float by itself or on mats of ''[[Cladophora]]'' spp., and move 60 m upstream in 3 months through positive rheotactic behavior.<ref name="Zaranko"/> It can respond to chemical stimuli in the water, including the odor of predatory fish, which causes it to migrate to the undersides of rocks to avoid predation.<ref name=usgs/><ref name="Levri 1998">Levri, E. P. 1998. ''Perceived predation risk, parasitism, and the foraging behavior of a freshwater snail (Potamopyrgus antipodarum)''. Canadian Journal of Zoology 76(10):1878–1884.</ref>
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| ==See also==
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| *[[Invasive species of New Zealand origin]]
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist|2}}
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| == Further reading ==
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| {{refbegin}}
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| * Kerans, B. L, M. F. Dybdahl, M. M. Gangloff and J. E. Jannot. 2005. ''Potamopyrgus antipodarum: distribution, density, and effects on native macroinvertebrate assemblages in the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem''. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24(1):123–138.
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| * Strzelec, M. 2005. ''Impact of the introduced Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Gastropods) on the snail fauna in post–industrial ponds in Poland''. Biologia (Bratislava) 60(2):159–163.
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| {{refend}}
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| ==External links==
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| {{Commons category|Potamopyrgus antipodarum}}
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| * Pesticides Database - Chemical Toxicity Studies - [http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_AquireAll.jsp?Species=5642&Effect=], [http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_AquireAll.jsp?Species=2442&Effect=]
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| *[http://cisr.ucr.edu/new_zealand_mud_snail.html CISR - New Zealand Mud Snail] Center for Invasive Species Research, Summary of New Zealand Mud Snail
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| * [http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatics/mudsnail.shtml Species Profile- New Zealand Mud Snail (''Potamopyrgus antipodarum'')], National Invasive Species Information Center, [[United States National Agricultural Library]]. Lists general information and resources for New Zealand Mud Snail.
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:New Zealand Mud Snail}}
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| [[Category:Hydrobiidae]]
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| [[Category:Gastropods of New Zealand]]
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| [[Category:Invasive animal species]]
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| [[Category:Invasive animal species in the United States]]
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