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| [[File:WOA05 GLODAP del pH AYool.png|thumb|right|300px|Estimated change in sea water [[pH]] caused by human created [[carbon dioxide|{{chem|CO|2}}]] between the 1700s and the 1990s, from the [[Global Ocean Data Analysis Project]] (GLODAP) and the [[World Ocean Atlas]]|alt=World map showing varying change to pH across different parts of different oceans]]
| | Emilia Shryock is my name but you can contact me something you like. Years ago we moved to North Dakota. In her expert life she is a payroll clerk but she's always needed her personal business. To collect coins is what his family members and him enjoy.<br><br>Here is my web site :: [http://vei.cuaed.unam.mx/es/node/4882 vei.cuaed.unam.mx] |
| [[File:Acidifiedupwelledwater.jpg|thumb|NOAA provides evidence for upwelling of corrosive "acidified" water onto the Continental Shelf. In the figure above, note the vertical sections of (A) temperature, (B) aragonite saturation, (C) pH, (D) DIC, and (E) pCO2 on transect line 5 off Pt. St. George, California. The potential density surfaces are superimposed on the temperature section. The 26.2 potential density surface delineates the location of the first instance in which the undersaturated water is upwelled from depths of 150 to 200 m onto the shelf and outcropping at the surface near the coast. The red dots represent sample locations.<ref name="ref946383027">{{cite web|url=http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/pubs/outstand/feel3087/feel3087.shtml|title=Feely et al. - Evidence for upwelling of corrosive "acidified" water onto the Continental Shel|publisher=pmel.noaa.gov|accessdate=2014-01-25}}</ref>]]
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| '''Ocean acidification''' is the ongoing decrease in the [[PH#Seawater|pH]] of the [[Earth]]'s oceans, caused by the uptake of [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}) from the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]].<ref name=cald03>{{Cite journal |last=Caldeira |first=K. |coauthors=Wickett, M. E. |year=2003 |title=Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=425 |issue=6956 |pages=365–365 |doi=10.1038/425365a |pmid=14508477 |bibcode=2001AGUFMOS11C0385C |ref=harv}}</ref> An estimated 30–40% of the carbon dioxide released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans, rivers and lakes.<ref name=millero95>{{Cite journal |last=Millero|first=Frank J. |year=1995 |title=Thermodynamics of the carbon dioxide system in the oceans | archiveurl = | archivedate = | journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=661–677 |doi= 10.1016/0016-7037(94)00354-O|pmid= |bibcode= 1995GeCoA..59..661M |ref=harv}}</ref><ref name=Feely04>{{cite journal |last=Feely |first=R. A. |coauthors=''et al.'' |title=Impact of Anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> on the CaCO<sub>3</sub> System in the Oceans |journal=Science |volume=305 |date=July 2004 |pages=362–366 |bibcode = 2004Sci...305..362F |doi = 10.1126/science.1097329 |pmid=15256664 |issue=5682 |ref=harv}}</ref> To maintain [[chemical equilibrium]], some of it reacts with the water to form [[carbonic acid]]. Some of these extra carbonic acid [[molecules]] react with a water molecule to give a [[bicarbonate]] ion and a [[hydronium]] ion, thus increasing ocean "[[acidity]]" ([[Hydron (chemistry)|H<sup>+</sup>]] ion concentration). Between 1751 and 1994 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14,<ref name=jacob05>{{cite journal | last=Jacobson | first=M. Z. | year=2005 | title=Studying ocean acidification with conservative, stable numerical schemes for nonequilibrium air-ocean exchange and ocean equilibrium chemistry | journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] – Atmospheres | volume=110 | doi=10.1029/2004JD005220 | url=http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/2005/2004JD005220.shtml | pages=D07302 | bibcode=2005JGRD..11007302J | ref=harv}}</ref> representing an increase of almost 30% in [[Hydron (chemistry)|H<sup>+</sup>]] ion concentration in the world's oceans.<ref name="pmid18536730">{{Cite journal |author=Hall-Spencer, J. M. |coauthors=Rodolfo-Metalpa, R.; Martin, S.; ''et al.'' |title=Volcanic carbon dioxide vents show ecosystem effects of ocean acidification |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=454 |issue=7200 |pages=96–9 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18536730 |doi=10.1038/nature07051 |bibcode=2008Natur.454...96H |ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="scor-int">[http://www.scor-int.org/OBO2009/A&O_Report.pdf Report of the Ocean Acidification and Oxygen Working Group, International Council for Science's Scientific Committee on Ocean Research (SCOR) Biological Observatories Workshop]</ref> Available Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean pH exceeded historical analogs <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mora |first1=C |title=The projected timing of climate departure from recent variability |journal=Nature |volume=502 |pages=183–187 |year=2013 |doi=10.1038/nature12540}}</ref> and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and many ocean goods and services.<ref name=Mora>{{cite journal |last1=Mora |first1=C. et al. |title=Biotic and Human Vulnerability to Projected Changes in Ocean Biogeochemistry over the 21st Century |journal=Plos Biology |volume=11 |pages=e1001682 |year=2013 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001682}}</ref>
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| Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of possibly harmful consequences, such as depressing metabolic rate and immune response in some organisms, and causing [[coral bleaching]]. However it may benefit some other species.<!--please do not add specific examples here, do it in the article body-->
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| Other chemical reactions are triggered which result in a net decrease in the amount of [[carbonate]] ions available. This makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms, such as [[coral]] and some [[plankton]], to form [[biogenic]] [[calcium carbonate]], and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution.<ref name=orr05/> Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens [[food chains]] connected with the oceans.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/31/science/earth/31ocean.html |title=Rising Acidity Is Threatening Food Web of Oceans, Science Panel Says |author=Cornelia Dean |publisher=New York Times |date=January 30, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author= Robert E. Service |title= Rising Acidity Brings and Ocean Of Trouble |journal=Science|pages= 146–148 |volume= 337 |date= 13 July 2012|bibcode = 2012Sci...337..146S|doi= 10.1126/science.337.6091.146|pmid= 22798578|issue= 6091|ref= harv }}</ref> As members of the [[InterAcademy Panel]], 105 [[academy of sciences|science academies]] have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050, global {{CO2}} emissions be reduced by at least 50%, compared to the 1990 level.<ref name="iap statement">{{Cite web | author=IAP | title=Interacademy Panel (IAP) Member Academies Statement on Ocean Acidification | date=June 2009 | url=http://www.interacademies.net/10878/13951.aspx | ref=harv {{inconsistent citations}}}}, Secretariat: TWAS (the Academy of Sciences for the Developing World), Trieste, Italy.</ref>
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| Ocean acidification has occurred previously in Earth's history. The most notable example is the [[Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum]] (PETM),<ref name=Zachos2005>{{cite journal | author = Zachos, J.C. | coauthors = Röhl, U.; Schellenberg, S.A.; Sluijs, A.; Hodell, D.A.; Kelly, D.C.; Thomas, E.; Nicolo, M.; Raffi, I.; Lourens, L. J.; McCarren, H.; Kroon, D. | title = Rapid acidification of the ocean during the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum | year = 2005 | journal = Science | volume = 308 | pages = 1611–1615 | doi = 10.1126/science.1109004 | issue = 5728 | pmid = 15947184 | ref = harv }}</ref> which occurred approximately 56 million years ago. For reasons that are currently uncertain, massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere, and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins.
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| {{toclimit|3}}
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| ==Carbon cycle==
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| [[File:CO2 pump hg.png|thumb|The {{chem|CO|2}} cycle between the atmosphere and the ocean.]]
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| The [[carbon cycle]] describes the fluxes of carbon dioxide ({{chem|CO|2}}) between the oceans, [[Earth|terrestrial]] [[biosphere]], [[lithosphere]],<ref>{{cite web |title=carbon cycle |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |accessdate= 11 Feb 2010 |url=http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020247}}</ref> and the [[atmosphere]]. Human activities such as the [[combustion]] of [[fossil fuel]]s and [[land use]] changes have led to a new flux of {{chem|CO|2}} into the atmosphere. About 45% has remained in the atmosphere; most of the rest has been taken up by the oceans,<ref name=raven99>{{Cite journal| last=Raven | first=J. A. | coauthors=Falkowski, P. G. | year=1999 | title=Oceanic sinks for atmospheric {{co2}} | journal=[[Plant, Cell & Environment]] | volume=22 | pages=741–755 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-3040.1999.00419.x| issue=6| ref=harv}}</ref> with some taken up by terrestrial plants.<ref name=cramer01>{{Cite journal| last=Cramer | first=W. | coauthors=''et al.'' | year=2001 | title=Global response of terrestrial ecosystem structure and function to {{co2}} and climate change: results from six dynamic global vegetation models | journal=[[Global Change Biology]] | volume=7 | pages=357–373 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2486.2001.00383.x| issue=4| ref=harv}}</ref>
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| [[File:CalciumAragoniteSaturation.jpg|thumb|Distribution of (A) aragonite and (B) calcite saturation depth in the global oceans<ref name="ref-495339943">{{cite web|url=http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/pubs/outstand/feel2633/feel2633.shtml|title=Feely et al. - Impact of Anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 System in the Oceans|publisher=pmel.noaa.gov|accessdate=2014-01-25}}</ref>]]
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| [[File:Changes in aragonite saturation of the world's oceans, 1880-2012 (US EPA).png|thumb|The map was created by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution using Community Earth System Model data. This map was created by comparing average conditions during the 1880s with average conditions during the most recent 10 years (2003–2012). Aragonite saturation has only been measured at selected locations during the last few decades, but it can be calculated reliably for different times and locations based on the relationships scientists have observed among aragonite saturation, pH, dissolved carbon, water temperature, concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and other factors that can be measured. This map shows changes in the amount of aragonite dissolved in ocean surface waters between the 1880s and the most recent decade (2003–2012). Aragonite saturation is a ratio that compares the amount of aragonite that is actually present with the total amount of aragonite that the water could hold if it were completely saturated. The more negative the change in aragonite saturation, the larger the decrease in aragonite available in the water, and the harder it is for marine creatures to produce their skeletons and shells. The global map shows changes over time in the amount of aragonite dissolved in ocean water, which is called aragonite saturation.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}]]
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| The carbon cycle involves both [[organic compound]]s such as [[cellulose]] and inorganic carbon compounds such as [[carbon dioxide]] and the [[carbonate]]s. The inorganic compounds are particularly relevant when discussing ocean acidification for it includes many forms of dissolved {{chem|CO|2}} present in the Earth's oceans.<ref>{{Cite book| last1=Kump | first1=Lee R. | first2=James F. | last2=Kasting | first3=Robert G. | last3=Crane |authorlink2=James Kasting | title=The Earth System | edition=2nd | pages=162–164 | publisher=Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall | year=2003| isbn=0-613-91814-2 }}</ref>
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| When {{chem|CO|2}} dissolves, it reacts with water to form a balance of ionic and non-ionic chemical species: dissolved free carbon dioxide ({{chem|CO|2(aq)}}), [[carbonic acid]] ({{chem|H|2|CO|3}}), [[bicarbonate]] ({{chem|HCO|3|-}}) and [[carbonate]] ({{chem|CO|3|2-}}). The ratio of these species depends on factors such as [[seawater]] [[temperature]] and [[alkalinity]] (as shown in a [[Bjerrum plot]]). These different forms of [[Total inorganic carbon|dissolved inorganic carbon]] are transferred from an ocean's surface to its interior by the ocean's [[solubility pump]].
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| The resistance of an area of ocean to absorbing atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} is known as the [[Revelle factor]].
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| ==Acidification==
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| Dissolving {{chem|CO|2}} in seawater increases the [[hydrogen]] ion ({{chem|H|+}}) concentration in the ocean, and thus decreases ocean pH, as follows:
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| <center> CO<sub>2</sub> <sub>(aq)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O <math>\leftrightarrow</math> H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> <math>\leftrightarrow</math> HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> + H<sup>+</sup> <math>\leftrightarrow</math> CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2−</sup> + 2 H<sup>+</sup>. </center>
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| [[Ken Caldeira|Caldeira]] and Wickett (2003)<ref name=cald03/> placed the rate and magnitude of modern ocean acidification changes in the context of probable historical changes during the last 300 million years.
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| Since the [[industrial revolution]] began, it is estimated that surface ocean pH has dropped by slightly more than 0.1 units on the [[logarithm]]ic scale of pH, representing about a 29% increase in {{chem|H|+|}}. It is expected to drop by a further 0.3 to 0.5 pH units<ref name="Mora"/> (an additional doubling to tripling of today's [[Post-industrial society|post-industrial]] acid concentrations) by 2100 as the oceans absorb more anthropogenic {{chem|CO|2}}, the impacts being most severe for coral reefs and the [[Southern Ocean]].<ref name=cald03/><ref name=orr05/><ref name=raven05>Raven, J. A. ''et al.'' (2005). [http://royalsociety.org/Report_WF.aspx?pageid=9633 Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide.] Royal Society, London, UK.</ref> These changes are predicted to continue rapidly as the oceans take up more anthropogenic {{chem|CO|2}} from the atmosphere. The degree of change to ocean chemistry, including ocean pH, will depend on the [[mitigation of climate change|mitigation]] and [[Special Report on Emissions Scenarios|emissions pathways]]<ref name="a-b-2011">{{cite journal |url=http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/369/1934/20.full.pdf+html |title=Beyond 'dangerous' climate change: emission scenarios for a new world |first1=Kevin |last=Bows |first2=Alice |last2=Bows |year=2011 |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A]] |accessdate=2011-05-22 |bibcode=2011RSPTA.369...20A |volume=369 |pages=20 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2010.0290 |issue=1934 |ref=harv }}</ref> society takes.<ref>{{Cite journal| last=Turley | first=C. | year=2008 | title=Impacts of changing ocean chemistry in a high-{{chem|CO|2}} world | journal=[[Mineralogical Magazine]] | volume=72 | pages=359–362 | doi=10.1180/minmag.2008.072.1.359 | issue=1| ref=harv}}</ref>
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| Although the largest changes are expected in the future,<ref name=orr05/> a report from [[NOAA]] scientists found large quantities of water undersaturated in [[aragonite]] are already upwelling close to the Pacific [[continental shelf]] area of North America.<ref name=feeley08>{{Cite journal|author=Feely, R. A.; Sabine, C. L.; Hernandez-Ayon, J. M.; Ianson, D.; Hales B. |title=Evidence for upwelling of corrosive "acidified" water onto the continental shelf |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=320 |issue=5882 |pages=1490–2 |date=June 2008 |pmid=18497259 |doi=10.1126/science.1155676 |bibcode=2008Sci...320.1490F|ref=harv}}</ref> Continental shelves play an important role in marine ecosystems since most [[marine organisms]] live or are [[Spawn (biology)|spawned]] there, and though the study only dealt with the area from [[Vancouver]] to [[Northern California]], the authors suggest that other shelf areas may be experiencing similar effects.<ref name=feeley08/>
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| {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em;"
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| |+ Average surface ocean pH<ref name=orr05>{{Cite journal |last=Orr|first=James C.|coauthors=''et al.'' |year=2005 |title=Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms |url=http://www.ipsl.jussieu.fr/~jomce/acidification/paper/Orr_OnlineNature04095.pdf | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080625100559/http://www.ipsl.jussieu.fr/~jomce/acidification/paper/Orr_OnlineNature04095.pdf | archivedate = 2008-06-25 | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=437 |issue=7059 |pages=681–686 |doi=10.1038/nature04095 |pmid=16193043 |bibcode=2005Natur.437..681O |ref=harv}}</ref>
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| |-
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| ! Time
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| ! pH
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| ! pH change relative <br>to pre-industrial
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| ! Source
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| ! H<sup>+</sup> concentration change<br>relative to pre-industrial
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| |-
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| | [[Pre-Industrial Era|Pre-industrial]] (18th century)
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| | 8.179
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| | analysed field<ref name=key04>{{Cite journal |last=Key|first=R. M. |coauthors=Kozyr, A.; Sabine, C. L.; Lee, K.; Wanninkhof, R.; Bullister, J.; Feely, R. A.; Millero, F.; Mordy, C. and Peng, T.-H. |year=2004 |title=A global ocean carbon climatology: Results from GLODAP |url=http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/2004/2004GB002247.shtml |journal=[[Global Biogeochemical Cycles]] |volume=18 |issue= 4|pages=GB4031 |doi=10.1029/2004GB002247 |bibcode=2004GBioC..18.4031K |ref=harv}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=February 2012}}
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| | Recent past (1990s)
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| | 8.104
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| | −0.075
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| | field<ref name=key04/>
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| | + 18.9%
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| |-
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| | Present levels
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| | ~8.069
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| | −0.11
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| | field<ref name="pmid18536730"/><ref name="scor-int"/><ref name="aad.gov.au">[http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=33583 "Ocean acidification and the Southern Ocean" by the Australian Antarctic Division of the Australian Government]</ref><ref name="oceanacidification.wordpress.com">[http://oceanacidification.wordpress.com/2009/02/04/epa-weighs-action-on-ocean-acidification/ EPA weighs action on ocean acidification post at official blog of EPOCA, the European Project on Ocean Acidification]</ref>
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| | '''+ 28.8%'''
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| |-
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| | 2050 (2×{{chem|CO|2}} = 560 ppm)
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| | 7.949
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| | −0.230
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| | model<ref name=orr05/>
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| | + 69.8%
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| | 2100 (IS92a)<ref>''[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/emission/027.htm Review of Past IPCC Emissions Scenarios]'', [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]] Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (ISBN 0521804930).</ref>
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| | 7.824
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| | −0.355
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| | model<ref name=orr05/>
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| | + 126.5%
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| |}
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| ===Rate===
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| One of the first detailed datasets to examine how pH varied over a period of time at a [[Temperate zone|temperate]] [[coast]]al location found that acidification was occurring much faster than previously predicted, with consequences for near-shore [[benthic]] ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal| last=Wootton | first=J. T. | coauthors=Pfister, C. A. and Forester, J. D. | year=2008 | title=Dynamic patterns and ecological impacts of declining ocean pH in a high-resolution multi-year dataset | journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] | volume=105 | pages=18848–18853 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0810079105 | pmid=19033205 | issue=48 | pmc=2596240 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10518848W| ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/11/081124141053.htm |title=Ocean Growing More Acidic Faster Than Once Thought; Increasing Acidity Threatens Sea Life |accessdate=26 November 2008 |publisher=[[Science Daily]] |date=2008-11-26 }}</ref> [[Thomas Lovejoy]], former chief biodiversity advisor to the World Bank, has suggested that "the acidity of the oceans will more than double in the next 40 years. This rate is 100 times faster than any changes in ocean acidity in the last 20 million years, making it unlikely that marine life can somehow adapt to the changes."<ref name="2009ng_acidrate">[http://blogs.nationalgeographic.com/blogs/news/chiefeditor/2009/12/acidification.html UN: Oceans are 30 percent more acidic than before fossil fuels]</ref> It is predicted that, by the year 2100, the level of acidity in the ocean will reach the levels experienced by the earth 20 million years ago.<ref name=Mora/><ref>{{cite web|title=What is Ocean Acidification|url=http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What+is+Ocean+Acidification%3F|publisher=NOAA|accessdate=24 August 2013}}</ref>
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| Current rates of ocean acidification have been compared with the greenhouse event at the Paleocene–Eocene boundary (about 55 million years ago) when surface ocean temperatures rose by 5–6 degrees [[Celsius]]. No catastrophe was seen in surface ecosystems, yet bottom-dwelling organisms in the deep ocean experienced a major extinction. The current acidification is on a path to reach levels higher than any seen in the last 65 million years,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.physorg.com/news185444922.html |title=Rate of ocean acidification the fastest in 65 million years |publisher=Physorg.com |date=2010-02-14 |accessdate=2013-08-29}}</ref> and the rate of increase is about ten times the rate that preceded the Paleocene–Eocene mass extinction. The current and projected acidification has been described as an almost unprecedented geological event.<ref name="yale_ridgwell_acidrate">{{cite web|url=http://e360.yale.edu/content/feature.msp?id=2241|title=An Ominous Warning on the Effects of Ocean Acidification by Carl Zimmer: Yale Environment 360|publisher=e360.yale.edu|accessdate=2014-01-25}}</ref> A National Research Council study released in April 2010 likewise concluded that "the level of acid in the oceans is increasing at an unprecedented rate."<ref>[http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2010/04/22/92728/report-ocean-acidification-rising.html Report: Ocean acidification rising at unprecedented rate]</ref><ref>[[United States National Research Council]], 2010. [http://dels.nas.edu/Report/Ocean-Acidification-National-Strategy/12904/ Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean]</ref> A 2012 paper in the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' examined the geological record in an attempt to find a historical analog for current global conditions as well as those of the future. The researchers determined that the current rate of ocean acidification is faster than at any time in the past 300 million years.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://journalistsresource.org/studies/environment/climate-change/geological-record-ocean-acidification/ | title=The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification}} JournalistsResource.org, retrieved 14 March 2012</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 =Hönisch | first1 = Bärbel | last2 =Ridgwell | first2 = Andy | last3 = Schmidt | first3 = Daniela N. | year = 2012 | title = The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 335 | issue =6072 | pages = 1058–1063 | doi = 10.1126/science.1208277|bibcode = 2012Sci...335.1058H | last4 =Thomas | first4 =E. | last5 =Gibbs | first5 =S. J. | last6 =Sluijs | first6 =A. | last7 =Zeebe | first7 =R. | last8 =Kump | first8 =L. | last9 =Martindale | first9 =R. C. | last10 =Greene | first10 =S. E. | last11 =Kiessling | first11 =W. | last12 =Ries | first12 =J. | last13 =Zachos | first13 =J. C. | last14 =Royer | first14 =D. L. | last15 =Barker | first15 =S. | last16 =Marchitto | first16 =T. M. | last17 =Moyer | first17 =R. | last18 =Pelejero | first18 =C. | last19 =Ziveri | first19 =P. | last20 =Foster | first20 =G. L. | last21 =Williams | first21 =B. | ref =harv }}</ref>
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| A review by climate scientists at the [[RealClimate]] blog, of a 2005 report by the [[Royal Society]] of the UK similarly highlighted the centrality of the ''rates'' of change in the present anthropogenic acidification process, writing:<ref>[http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2005/07/the-acid-ocean-the-other-problem-with-cosub2sub-emission/ The Acid Ocean – the Other Problem with CO2 Emission]</ref>
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| <blockquote>"The natural pH of the ocean is determined by a need to balance the deposition and burial of {{chem|CaCO|3}} on the sea floor against the influx of {{chem|Ca||2+}} and {{chem|CO|3|2-}} into the ocean from dissolving rocks on land, called weathering. These processes stabilize the pH of the ocean, by a mechanism called {{chem|CaCO|3}} compensation...The point of bringing it up again is to note that if the {{chem|CO|2}} concentration of the atmosphere changes more slowly than this, as it always has throughout the [[Vostok Station#Ice core drilling|Vostok record]], the pH of the ocean will be relatively unaffected because {{chem|CaCO|3}} compensation can keep up. The [present] fossil fuel acidification is much faster than natural changes, and so the acid spike will be more intense than the earth has seen in at least 800,000 years."</blockquote>
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| In the 15-year period 1995–2010 alone, acidity has increased 6 percent in the upper 100 meters of the Pacific Ocean from Hawaii to Alaska.<ref name="2010aug_sciam"/> According to a statement in July 2012 by [[Jane Lubchenco]], head of the U.S. [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] "surface waters are changing much more rapidly than initial calculations have suggested. It's yet another reason to be very seriously concerned about the amount of carbon dioxide that is in the atmosphere now and the additional amount we continue to put out."<ref>[[Huffington Post]], 9 July 2012, "Ocean Acidification Is Climate Change's 'Equally Evil Twin,' NOAA Chief Says," http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/09/ocean-acidification-reefs-climate-change_n_1658081.html?utm_hp_ref=green</ref>
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| A 2013 study claimed acidity was increasing at a rate 10 times faster than in any of the evolutionary crises in the earth's history.<ref>{{cite web|author=Fiona Harvey, environment correspondent |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/aug/25/rising-acid-levels-seas-endanger-marine-poertner |title=Rising levels of acids in seas may endanger marine life, says study | Environment |publisher=The Guardian |date=2013-08-25 |accessdate=2013-08-29}}</ref>
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| ==Calcification==
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| Changes in ocean chemistry can have extensive direct and indirect effects on organisms and their habitats. One of the most important repercussions of increasing ocean acidity relates to the production of shells and plates out of [[calcium carbonate]] ({{chem|CaCO|3}}).<ref name=raven05/> This process is called calcification and is important to the biology and survival of a wide range of marine organisms. Calcification involves the [[precipitation (chemistry)|precipitation]] of dissolved ions into solid {{chem|CaCO|3}} structures, such as [[coccolith]]s. After they are formed, such structures are vulnerable to [[dissolution (chemistry)|dissolution]] unless the surrounding seawater contains [[saturation (chemistry)|saturating]] concentrations of carbonate ions. The [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturation]] state of seawater for a mineral (known as Ω) is a measure of the thermodynamic potential for the mineral to form or to dissolve, and is described by the following equation:
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| <math>{\Omega} = \frac{\left[\textrm{Ca}^{2+}\right] \left[\textrm{CO}_{3}^{2-}\right]}{K_{sp}}</math>
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| Here Ω is the product of the concentrations (or [[Activity (chemistry)|activities]]) of the reacting ions that form the mineral ({{chem|Ca||2+}} and {{chem|CO|3|2-}}), divided by the product of the concentrations of those ions when the mineral is at [[chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] ({{chem|K|sp}}), that is, when the mineral is neither forming nor dissolving.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1=Atkinson | first1=M.J. |last2=Cuet | first2=P. | year=2008 | title=Possible effects of ocean acidification on coral reef biogeochemistry: topics for research | journal=[[Marine Ecology Progress Series]] | volume=373 | pages=249–256 | doi=10.3354/meps07867| ref=harv }}</ref> In seawater, a natural horizontal boundary is formed as a result of temperature, pressure, and depth, and is known as the saturation horizon, or [[lysocline]].<ref name=raven05/> Above this saturation horizon, Ω has a value greater than 1, and {{chem|CaCO|3}} does not readily dissolve. Most calcifying organisms live in such waters.<ref name=raven05/> Below this depth, Ω has a value less than 1, and {{chem|CaCO|3}} will dissolve. However, if its production rate is high enough to offset dissolution, {{chem|CaCO|3}} can still occur where Ω is less than 1. The [[carbonate compensation depth]] occurs at the depth in the ocean where production is exceeded by dissolution.<ref>{{Cite book| last1=Thurman | first1=H.V. | last2=Trujillo | first2=A.P. | title=Introductory Oceanography | year=2004 | publisher=Prentice Hall | isbn=978-0-13-143888-0 }}</ref>
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| [[File:Carbonate system of seawater.svg|thumb|[[Bjerrum plot]]: Change in carbonate system of seawater from ocean acidification.]]
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| As shown in the [[Bjerrum plot]], along with the change in pH, adding extra {{chem|CO|2}} to the oceans also changes the oceans' concentrations of the different forms of [[Total inorganic carbon|dissolved inorganic carbon]]. There is a decrease in the concentration of CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2−</sup>, which decreases Ω, and hence makes {{chem|CaCO|3}} dissolution more likely.
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| Calcium carbonate occurs in two common [[polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphs]] (crystalline forms): [[aragonite]] and [[calcite]]. Aragonite is much more soluble than calcite, so the aragonite saturation horizon is always nearer to the surface than the calcite saturation horizon.<ref name=raven05/> This also means that those organisms that produce aragonite may be more vulnerable to changes in ocean acidity than those that produce calcite.<ref name=orr05/> Increasing {{chem|CO|2}} levels and the resulting lower pH of seawater decreases the saturation state of {{chem|CaCO|3}} and raises the saturation horizons of both forms closer to the surface.<ref>[[The Royal Society]]. Ocean Acidification Due To Increasing Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, The Clyvedon Press Ltd. (2005): 11.</ref> This decrease in saturation state is believed to be one of the main factors leading to decreased calcification in marine organisms, as the inorganic precipitation of {{chem|CaCO|3}} is directly proportional to its saturation state.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1=Marubini | first1=F. | last2=Ferrier-Pagès | first2=C. | last3=Furla | first3=P. | last4=Allemand | first4=D. | year=2008 | title=Coral calcification responds to seawater acidification: a working hypothesis towards a physiological mechanism | journal=[[Coral Reefs (journal)|Coral Reefs]] | volume=27 | pages=491–499 | doi=10.1007/s00338-008-0375-6| issue=3 |bibcode = 2008CorRe..27..491M| ref=harv }}</ref>
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| ==Possible impacts==
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| [[File:Impacts of ocean acidification (NOAA EVL).webm|thumb|420px|right|alt=refer to caption and image description|Video summarizing the impacts of ocean acidification. Source: [[NOAA]] Environmental Visualization Laboratory.]]
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| Increasing acidity has possibly harmful consequences, such as depressing metabolic rates in [[jumbo squid]],<ref name=Rosa>{{cite journal |last=Rosa |first=R. |last2=Seibel |first2=B. |title=Synergistic effects of climate-related variables suggest future physiological impairment in a top oceanic predator |journal=P.n.a.s. |volume=105 |year=2008 |month= |pages=20776–20780 |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/105/52/20776.short |bibcode = 2008PNAS..10520776R |doi = 10.1073/pnas.0806886105 |issue=52 |ref=harv }}</ref> depressing the immune responses of blue mussels,<ref name=Bibby>{{cite journal |last=Bibby |first=R. |coauthors=''et al.'' |title=Effects of ocean acidification on the immune response of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis |journal=Aquatic Biology |volume=2 |year=2008 |month= |pages=67–74 |doi=10.3354/ab00037 |ref=harv }}</ref> and [[coral bleaching]]. However it may benefit some species, for example increasing the growth rate of the sea star, ''[[Pisaster ochraceus]]'',<ref name=Gooding>{{cite journal |last=Gooding |first=R. |coauthors=''et al.'' |title=Elevated water temperature and carbon dioxide concentration increase the growth of a keystone echinoderm |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |year=2008}}</ref> while shelled plankton species may flourish in altered oceans.<ref>[http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/349745/description/News_in_Brief_Some_like_it_acidic ''Some like it acidic''] April 17, 2013 [[Science News]]</ref>
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| The report "Ocean Acidification Summary for Policymakers 2013" describes research findings and possible impacts.<ref>{{cite news | title = Ocean Acidification Summary for Policymakers | publisher = IGBP | url = http://www.igbp.net/publications/summariesforpolicymakers/summariesforpolicymakers/oceanacidificationsummaryforpolicymakers2013.5.30566fc6142425d6c9111f4.html}}</ref>
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| ===Impacts on oceanic calcifying organisms===
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| Although the [[solubility pump|natural absorption of {{chem|CO|2}}]] by the world's oceans helps mitigate the [[climate change|climatic]] effects of anthropogenic emissions of {{chem|CO|2}}, it is believed that the resulting decrease in pH will have negative consequences, primarily for oceanic [[calcification|calcifying]] organisms. These span the [[food chain]] from [[autotroph]]s to [[heterotroph]]s and include organisms such as [[coccolithophore]]s, [[coral]]s, [[foraminifera]], [[echinoderm]]s, [[crustacea]]ns and [[mollusca|molluscs]].<ref name="Mora"/><ref>National Research Council. ''[http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12877&page=R1 Overview of Climate Changes and Illustrative Impacts. Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millennia].'' Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2011. 1. Print.</ref> As described above, under normal conditions, calcite and aragonite are stable in surface waters since the carbonate ion is at [[supersaturation|supersaturating]] concentrations. However, as ocean pH falls, the concentration of carbonate ions required for saturation to occur increases, and when carbonate becomes undersaturated, structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to dissolution. Therefore, even if there is no change in the rate of calcification, the rate of dissolution of calcareous material increases.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 = Nienhuis |first1 = S. |last2 = Palmer |first2 = A. |last3 = Harley |first3 = C. |year = 2010 |title = Elevated CO<sub>2</sub> affects shell dissolution rate but not calcification rate in a marine snail |journal = [[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume = 277 |issue = 1693 |pages = 2553–2558 |pmc = 2894921 |doi = 10.1098/rspb.2010.0206 |pmid = 20392726 |ref = harv}}</ref>
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| Corals,<ref name=gatt98>{{Cite journal |last=Gattuso |first=J.-P. |coauthors=Frankignoulle, M.; Bourge, I.; Romaine, S. and Buddemeier, R. W. |year=1998 |title=Effect of calcium carbonate saturation of seawater on coral calcification |url=http://www.obs-vlfr.fr/~gattuso/jpg_papers_list.php |journal=[[Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=18 |issue=1–2 |pages=37–46 |doi=10.1016/S0921-8181(98)00035-6
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| |bibcode = 1998GPC....18...37G |ref=harv }}</ref><ref name=gatt99>{{Cite journal |last=Gattuso |first=J.-P. |coauthors=Allemand, D.; Frankignoulle, M. |year=1999 |title=Photosynthesis and calcification at cellular, organismal and community levels in coral reefs: a review on interactions and control by carbonate chemistry |url=http://www.obs-vlfr.fr/~gattuso/jpg_papers_list.php |journal=[[American Zoologist]] |volume=39 |pages=160–183 |ref=harv }}</ref><ref name=lan05>{{Cite journal |last=Langdon |first=C. |coauthors=Atkinson, M. J. |year=2005 |title=Effect of elevated p{{CO2}} on photosynthesis and calcification of corals and interactions with seasonal change in temperature/irradiance and nutrient enrichment |journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=110|issue=C09S07|doi=10.1029/2004JC002576 |pages=C09S07 |bibcode=2005JGRC..11009S07L |ref=harv }}</ref> coccolithophore algae,<ref name=rieb00>{{Cite journal |last=Riebesell|first=Ulf|coauthors=Zondervan, Ingrid; Rost, Björn; Tortell, Philippe D.; Zeebe, Richard E. and François M. M. Morel |year=2000 |title=Reduced calcification of marine plankton in response to increased atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=407|issue=6802|pages=364–367|doi=10.1038/35030078 |pmid=11014189 |ref=harv }}</ref><ref name=zond01>{{Cite journal | last=Zondervan | first=I. | coauthors=Zeebe, R. E., Rost, B. and Rieblesell, U. | year=2001 | title=Decreasing marine biogenic calcification: a negative feedback on rising atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> | journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles | volume=15 | pages=507–516 | doi=10.1029/2000GB001321 | bibcode=2001GBioC..15..507Z | issue=2 | ref=harv}}</ref><ref name=zond02>{{Cite journal | last=Zondervan | first=I. | coauthors=Rost, B. and Rieblesell, U. | year=2002 | title=Effect of {{co2}} concentration on the PIC/POC ratio in the coccolithophore ''Emiliania huxleyi'' grown under light limiting conditions and different day lengths | journal=[[Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology]] | volume=272 |issue=1 |pages=55–70 | doi=10.1016/S0022-0981(02)00037-0 | ref=harv}}</ref><ref name=delille05>{{Cite journal | last=Delille | first=B. | coauthors=Harlay, J., Zondervan, I., Jacquet, S., Chou, L., Wollast, R., Bellerby, R.G.J., Frankignoulle, M., Borges, A.V., Riebesell, U. and Gattuso, J.-P. | year=2005 | title=Response of primary production and calcification to changes of p{{co2}} during experimental blooms of the coccolithophorid ''Emiliania huxleyi'' | url=http://www.obs-vlfr.fr/~gattuso/jpg_papers_list.php | journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles | volume=19 |doi=10.1029/2004GB002318 | pages=GB2023 | bibcode=2005GBioC..19.2023D | issue=2 | ref=harv}}</ref> coralline algae,<ref name=kuffner>{{Cite journal | last=Kuffner | first=I. B. | coauthors=Andersson, A. J., Jokiel, P. L., Rodgers, K. S. and Mackenzie, F. T. | year=2007 | title=Decreased abundance of crustose coralline algae due to ocean acidification | journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] | volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=114–117 |doi=10.1038/ngeo100 |bibcode=2008NatGe...1..114K | ref=harv}}</ref> foraminifera,<ref name='catalyst-2007-09-13-OAtbgws'>{{Cite news |last=Phillips |first=Graham |coauthors=Chris Branagan |title=Ocean Acidification – The BIG global warming story |date=2007-09-13 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |url=http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s2029333.htm |work =ABC TV Science: Catalyst |accessdate=2007-09-18 }}</ref> [[shellfish]]<ref name=gaz07>{{Cite journal |last=Gazeau |first=F. |coauthors=Quiblier, C.; Jansen, J. M.; Gattuso, J.-P.; Middelburg, J. J. and Heip, C. H. R. |year=2007 |title=Impact of elevated {{chem|CO|2}} on shellfish calcification |url=http://www.obs-vlfr.fr/~gattuso/jpg_papers_list.php |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |volume=34 |issue=7 |pages=L07603 |doi=10.1029/2006GL028554 |bibcode=2007GeoRL..3407603G |ref=harv}}</ref> and [[pteropod]]s<ref name=orr05/><ref name=comeau09>{{Cite journal| last=Comeau | first=C. | coauthors=Gorsky, G., Jeffree, R., Teyssié, J.-L. and Gattuso, J.-P. | journal=[[Biogeosciences]] | year=2009 | volume=6 | pages=1877–1882 | title=Impact of ocean acidification on a key Arctic pelagic mollusc ("Limacina helicina") | url=http://www.biogeosciences.net/6/1877/2009/ | doi=10.5194/bg-6-1877-2009| issue=9| ref=harv}}</ref> experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated {{chem|CO|2}}.
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| The [[Royal Society]] published a comprehensive overview of ocean acidification, and its potential consequences, in June 2005.<ref name=raven05/> However, some studies have found different response to ocean acidification, with coccolithophore calcification and photosynthesis both increasing under elevated atmospheric p{{CO2}},<ref name=buitenhuis99>{{Cite journal| last=Buitenhuis | first=E. T. | coauthors=de Baar, H. J. W. and Veldhuis, M. J. W. | journal=[[Journal of Phycology]] | year=1999 | volume=35 | pages=949–959 | title=Photosynthesis and calcification by ''Emiliania huxleyi'' (Prymnesiophyceae) as a function of inorganic carbon species | doi=10.1046/j.1529-8817.1999.3550949.x| issue=5| ref=harv}}</ref><ref name=nimer93>{{Cite journal| last=Nimer | first=N. A. | coauthors=Merrett, M. J. | year=1993 | title=Calcification rate in ''Emiliania huxleyi'' Lohmann in response to light, nitrate and availability of inorganic carbon | journal=[[New Phytologist]] | volume=123 | pages=673–677 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.1993.tb03776.x| issue=4| ref=harv }}</ref><ref name=Iglesias2008>{{Cite journal | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | year=2008 | volume=320 | pages=336–340 | doi= 10.1126/science.1154122 | title=Phytoplankton Calcification in a High-{{CO2}} World | last=Iglesias-Rodriguez | first=M. D. | coauthors=Halloran, P. R., Rickaby, R. E. M., Hall, I. R., Colmenero-Hidalgo, E., Gittins, J.R., Green, D.R.H., Tyrrell, T., Gibbs, S.J., von Dassow, P., Rehm, E., Armbrust, E.V. and Boessenkool, K.P. | pmid=18420926 | issue=5874 |bibcode=2008Sci...320..336I| ref=harv}}</ref> an equal decline in primary production and calcification in response to elevated {{co2}}<ref name=sciandra03>{{Cite journal| journal=[[Marine Ecology Progress Series]] | year=2003 | volume=261 | pages=111–112 | last=Sciandra | first=A. | coauthors=Harlay, J., Lefevre, D. ''et al.'' | title=Response of coccolithophorid ''Emiliania huxleyi'' to elevated partial pressure of {{CO2}} under nitrogen limitation | doi=10.3354/meps261111| ref=harv}}</ref> or the direction of the response varying between species.<ref name=langer06>{{Cite journal| journal=[[Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems]] | year=2006 | volume=7 | doi=10.1029/2005GC001227 | last=Langer | first=G. | coauthors=Geisen, M., Baumann, K. H. ''et al.'' | title=Species-specific responses of calcifying algae to changing seawater carbonate chemistry | pages=Q09006 | bibcode=2006GGG.....709006L| issue=9| ref=harv}}</ref> A study in 2008 examining a [[sedimentology|sediment core]] from the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic]] found that while the species composition of coccolithophorids has remained unchanged for the [[Industrial revolution|industrial]] period 1780 to 2004, the calcification of coccoliths has increased by up to 40% during the same time.<ref name=Iglesias2008/> A 2010 study from [[Stony Brook University]] suggested that while some areas are overharvested and other fishing grounds are being restored, because of ocean acidification it may be impossible to bring back many previous shellfish populations.<ref name="Stony2010">{{cite press release|title=Acidification Of Oceans May Contribute To Global Declines Of Shellfish, Study By Stony Brook Scientists Concludes|publisher=School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences at Stony Brook University|date=27 September 2010|url=http://commcgi.cc.stonybrook.edu/am2/publish/General_University_News_2/Acidification_Of_Oceans_May_Contribute_To_Global_Declines_Of_Shellfish_Study_By_Stony_Brook_Scientists_Concludes.shtml|accessdate=4 June 2012}}</ref> While the full ecological consequences of these changes in calcification are still uncertain, it appears likely that many calcifying species will be adversely affected.
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| When exposed in experiments to pH reduced by 0.2 to 0.4, larvae of a temperate [[brittlestar]], a relative of the common sea star, fewer than 0.1 percent survived more than eight days.<ref name="2010aug_sciam">[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=threatening-ocean-life&print=true How Acidification Threatens Oceans from the Inside Out]</ref> There is also a suggestion that a decline in the coccolithophores may have secondary effects on climate, contributing to [[global warming]] by decreasing the Earth's [[albedo]] via their effects on [[CLAW hypothesis|oceanic cloud cover]].<ref name=rutt06>{{Cite journal |last=Ruttiman |first=J. |year=2006 |title=Sick Seas |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=442 |issue=7106 |pages=978–980 |doi=10.1038/442978a |pmid=16943816 |bibcode=2006Natur.442..978R |ref=harv}}</ref> All marine ecosystems on Earth will be exposed to changes in acidification and several other ocean biogeochemical changes.<ref name="Mora"/>
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| The fluid in the internal compartments where corals grow their [[exoskeleton]] is also extremely important for calcification growth. When the saturation rate of aragonite in the external seawater is at ambient levels, the corals will grow their aragonite crystals rapidly in their internal compartments, hence their exoskeleton grows rapidly. If the level of aragonite in the external seawater is lower than the ambient level, the corals have to work harder to maintain the right balance in the internal compartment. When that happens, the process of growing the crystals slows down, and this slows down the rate of how much their exoskeleton is growing. Depending on how much aragonite is in the surrounding water, the corals may even stop growing because the levels of aragonite are too low to pump in to the internal compartment. They could even dissolve faster than they can make the crystals to their skeleton, depending on the aragonite levels in the surrounding water.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cohen |first=A.|last2=Holcomb |first2=M. |year=2009 |title=Why Corals Care About Ocean Acidification: Uncovering the Mechanism |journal=Oceanography |volume=24|pages=118–127 | url= http://coralreef.noaa.gov/education/oa/resources/22-4_cohen.pdf |doi=10.5670/oceanog.2009.102 |issue=4 |ref=harv}}</ref>
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| Ocean acidification may force some organisms to reallocate resources away from productive endpoints such as growth in order to maintain calcification.<ref name="Wood et al 2008">{{cite journal |author=Hannah L. Wood, John I. Spicer and Stephen Widdicombe |year=2008 |title=Ocean acidification may increase calcification rates, but at a cost |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=275 |issue=1644 |pages=1767–1773 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2008.0343 |pmid=18460426 |pmc=2587798 |ref=harv}}</ref>
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| ===Other biological impacts===
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| Aside from the slowing and/or reversing of calcification, organisms may suffer other adverse effects, either indirectly through negative impacts on food resources,<ref name=raven05/> or directly as reproductive or physiological effects. For example, the elevated oceanic levels of {{CO2}} may produce {{chem|CO|2}}-induced acidification of body fluids, known as [[hypercapnia]]. Also, increasing ocean acidity is believed to have a range of direct consequences. For example, increasing acidity has been observed to: reduce metabolic rates in jumbo squid;<ref name=Rosa /> depress the immune responses of blue mussels;<ref name=Bibby /> and make it harder for juvenile [[clownfish]] to tell apart the smells of non-predators and predators,<ref name=Dixson>{{cite journal |last=Dixson |first=D. L. |coauthors=''et al.'' |year=2010 |title=Ocean acidification disrupts the innate ability of fish to detect predator olfactory cues |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=68–75 |doi= 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01400.x |pmid= 19917053|pmc= |ref=harv }}</ref> or hear the sounds of their predators.<ref name=Simpson>{{cite journal |last=Simpson |first=S. D. |coauthors=''et al.'' |year=2011 |title=Ocean acidification erodes crucial auditory behaviour in a marine fish |journal=Biology Letters |volume= 7 |issue= 6 |pages= 917–20 |url=http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2011/05/25/rsbl.2011.0293.abstract |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2011.0293 |pmid=21632617 |pmc=3210647 |ref=harv}}</ref> This is possibly because ocean acidification may alter the [[Acoustics|acoustic]] properties of seawater, allowing sound to propagate further, and increasing ocean noise. This impacts all animals that use sound for [[animal echolocation|echolocation]] or [[whale song|communication]].<ref name="npr-threat">[http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=111807469 Acid In The Oceans: A Growing Threat To Sea Life] by Richard Harris. All Things Considered, 12 August 2009.</ref> Atlantic longfin squid eggs took longer to hatch in acidified water, and the squid's [[Statocyst|statolith]] was smaller and malformed in animals placed in sea water with a lower pH.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kwok |first=Roberta |title=Ocean acidification could make squid develop abnormally |url=http://conservationmagazine.org/2013/06/stunted-growth/ |publisher=University of Washington |accessdate=2013-08-24}}</ref> However, as with calcification, as yet there is not a full understanding of these processes in marine organisms or [[ecosystem]]s.<ref name="Ocean Acidification and Krill">{{Cite news |newspaper=The Australian |title=Swiss marine researcher moving in for the krill |url=http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,24392216-27703,00.html |year=2008}}</ref>
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| ===Nonbiological impacts===
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| Leaving aside direct biological effects, it is expected that ocean acidification in the future will lead to a significant decrease in the burial of carbonate sediments for several centuries, and even the dissolution of existing carbonate sediments.<ref name=ridgwell07>{{Cite journal | last=Ridgwell | first=A. | coauthors=Zondervan, I.; Hargreaves, J. C.; Bijma, J.; and Lenton, T. M. | year=2007 | title=Assessing the potential long-term increase of oceanic fossil fuel {{co2}} uptake due to {{co2}}-calcification feedback | journal=[[Biogeosciences]] | volume=4 | pages=481–492 | doi=10.5194/bg-4-481-2007 | issue=4 | ref=harv}}</ref> This will cause an elevation of ocean [[alkalinity]], leading to the enhancement of the ocean as a reservoir for {{co2}} with implications for climate change as more {{co2}} leaves the atmosphere for the ocean.<ref name=tyrrell08>{{Cite journal| last=Tyrrell | first=T. | year=2008 | title=Calcium carbonate cycling in future oceans and its influence on future climates | journal=[[Journal of Plankton Research]] | volume=30 | pages=141–156 | doi=10.1093/plankt/fbm105| issue=2| ref=harv }}</ref>
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| ===Impact on human industry===
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| The threat of acidification includes a decline in [[Commercial fishing|commercial fisheries]] and in the Arctic tourism industry and economy. Commercial fisheries are threatened because acidification harms calcifying organisms which form the base of the arctic food webs. [[Pteropoda|Pteropods]] and [[Brittle star|Sea Stars]] both form the base of the arctic [[food web]]s and are both seriously damaged from acidification. Pteropods shells dissolve with increasing acidification and the [[brittle star]]s lose muscle mass when re-growing appendages.<ref>{{cite web|title=Effects of Ocean Acidification on Marine Species & Ecosystems|url=http://oceana.org/en/our-work/climate-energy/ocean-acidification/learn-act/effects-of-ocean-acidification-on-marine-species-ecosystems|work=Report|publisher=OCEANA|accessdate=October 13, 2013}}</ref> For pteropods to create shells they require argonite which is produced through carbonate ions and dissolved calcium. Pteropods are severely effected because increasing acidification levels have steadily deceased the amount of water supersaturated with carbonate which is needed for Argonite creation.<ref name="biogeosciences">{{cite web | url=http://www.biogeosciences.net/8/919/2011/bg-8-919-2011.pdf | title=Impact of ocean acidification and elevated temperatures on early juveniles of the polar shelled pteropod Limacina helicina : mortality, shell degradation, and shell growth | publisher=Biogeosciences | work=Report |date=15 April 2011 | accessdate=14 November 2013 | author=Lischka S., B ̈ udenbender J., Boxhammer T., Riebesell U. | pages=919–932}}</ref> Arctic waters are changing so rapidly that they will become undersaturated with argonite as early as 2016.<ref name="biogeosciences" /> Additionally the brittle star's eggs die within a few days when exposed to expected conditions resulting from arctic acidification.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cicero.uio.no/webnews/index_e.aspx?id=11909 | title=Comprehensive study of Arctic Ocean acidification | publisher=CICERO | work=Study | accessdate=14 November 2013}}</ref> Acidification threatens to destroy Arctic food webs from the base up. Arctic food webs are considered simple, meaning there are few steps in the food chain from small organisms to larger predators. For example pteropods are “a key prey item of a number of higher predators - larger plankton, fish, seabirds, whales"<ref>{{cite web|title=Antarctic marine wildlife is under threat, study finds|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/20461646|publisher=BBC Nature|accessdate=October 13, 2013}}</ref> Both pteropods and sea stars serve as a substantial food source and their removal from the simple food web would pose a serious threat to the whole ecosystem. The effects on the calcifying organisms at the base of the food webs could potentially destroy fisheries. The value of fish caught from US commercial fisheries in 2007 was valued at $3.8 billion and of that 73% was derived from calcifiers and their direct predators.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.us-ocb.org/publications/OCB_OA_rept.pdf |title=Present and Future Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Ecosystems and Biogeochemical Cycles | author=V. J. Fabry, C. Langdon, W. M. Balch, A. G. Dickson, R. A. Feely, B. Hales, D. A. Hutchins, J. A. Kleypas, and C. L. Sabine | journal=Report of the Ocean Carbon and Biogeochemistry Scoping Workshop on Ocean Acidification Research | ref=harv}}</ref> Other organisms are directly harmed as a result of acidification. For example decrease in the growth of marine calcifiers such as the [[American lobster|American Lobster]], [[Arctica islandica|Ocean Quahog]], and [[scallop]]s means there is less shellfish meat available for sale and consumption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dfo-mpo.gc.ca/science/coe-cde/soto/report-rapport-2012/index-eng.asp | title=Canada's State of the Oceans Report, 2012 | publisher=Fisheries and Oceans Canada |work=Report | year=2012 | accessdate=21 October 2013}}</ref> Red king crab fisheries are also at a serious threat because crabs are calcifiers and rely on carbonate ions for shell development. Baby red king crab when exposed to increased acidification levels experienced 100% mortality after 95 days.<ref>{{cite newsgroup | url=http://www.afs-alaska.org/wp-content/uploads/Onco331.pdf | title=CO 2 , pH, and Anticipating a Future under Ocean Acidification | date=Winter 2013 | accessdate=14 November 2013 |author=Robert J. Foy, Mark Carls, Michael Dalton, Tom Hurst, W. Christopher Long, Dusanka Poljak, André E. Punt, Michael F. Sigler, Robert P. Stone, Katherine M. Swiney |newsgroup=ONCORHYNCHUS}}</ref> In 2006 Red King Cab accounted for 23% of the total guideline harvest levels and a serious decline in red crab population would threaten the crab harvesting industry.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.alaskaseafood.org/fishingprocessing/seafoodweb/stories/crab.html | title=Bering Sea Crab Fishery |publisher=Seafood Market Bulletin | work=Report | date=November 2005 | accessdate=10 November 2013}}</ref> Several ocean goods and services are likely to be undermined by future ocean acidification potentially affecting the livelihoods of some 400 to 800 million people depending upon the emission scenario.<ref name=Mora/>
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| ===Impact on indigenous peoples===
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| Acidification could damage the Arctic tourism economy and affect the way of life of indigenous peoples. A major pillar of Arctic tourism is the sport fishing and hunting industry. The sport fishing industry is threatened by collapsing food webs which provide food for the prized fish. A decline in tourism lowers revenue input in the area, and threatens the economies that are increasingly dependent on tourism.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx0938xPA-PolarTourismEN.pdf | title=Tourism in the Polar Regions: The Sustainability Challenge | publisher=UNEP, The International Ecotourism Society | work=Report | accessdate=13 October 2013 | author=Snyder, John}}</ref> Acidification is not merely a threat but has significantly declined whole fish populations. For example, In [[Scandinavia]] studies conducted on acidic water revealed that 15% of species populations had disappeared and that many more populations were limited in numbers or declining.<ref>{{cite journal | title=The Effects of Acidification on Scandinavian Freshwater Fish Fauna | author=Muniz, I. P. | journal=Series B, Biological Sciences |date=May 1984 | volume=305 | issue=1124 | jstor=2396102 | bibcode=1984RSPTB.305..517M | pages=517 | doi=10.1098/rstb.1984.0074 | ref=harv}}</ref> The rapid decrease or disappearance of marine life could also affect the diet of [[Indigenous peoples]].
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| ==Possible responses==
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| | |
| ===Reducing {{CO2}} emissions===
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| | |
| Members of the [[InterAcademy Panel]] recommended that by 2050, global anthropogenic {{CO2}} emissions be reduced less than 50% of the 1990 level.<ref name="iap statement"/> The 2009<ref name="iap statement"/> statement also called on world leaders to:<blockquote>
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| *Acknowledge that ocean acidification is a direct and real consequence of increasing atmospheric {{CO2}} concentrations, is already having an effect at current concentrations, and is likely to cause grave harm to important marine ecosystems as {{CO2}} concentrations reach 450 [parts-per-million (ppm)] and above;
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| *[...] Recognise that reducing the build up of {{CO2}} in the atmosphere is the only practicable solution to mitigating ocean acidification;
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| *[...] Reinvigorate action to reduce stressors, such as [[overfishing]] and [[marine pollution|pollution]], on [[marine ecosystem]]s to increase resilience to ocean acidification.</blockquote>
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| Stabilizing atmospheric {{CO2}} concentrations at 450 [[parts per million|ppm]] would require near-term emissions reductions, with steeper reductions over time.<ref>Table TS.2 (p.9) and Figure TS.10 (p.20), in: Technical Summary, in {{harvnb|Clarke|others|2007}}</ref>
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| The [[German Advisory Council on Global Change]]<ref name="wbgu ocean acidification">
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| Halting ocean acidification in time, in: Summary for Policymakers, in {{harvnb|WBGU|2006|p=3}}
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| </ref> stated:<blockquote>In order to prevent disruption of the calcification of marine organisms and the resultant risk of fundamentally altering marine food webs, the following guard rail should be obeyed: the pH of near surface waters should not drop more than 0.2 units below the pre-industrial average value in any larger ocean region (nor in the global mean).</blockquote>
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| One policy target related to ocean acidity is the magnitude of future global warming. Parties to the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC) adopted a target of limiting warming to below 2 °C, relative to the pre-industrial level.<ref name="unfccc 2 degrees celsius">{{Cite journal
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| | date=15 March 2011 | author=UNFCCC. Conference of the Parties (COP) | title=Report of the Conference of the Parties on its sixteenth session, held in Cancun from 29 November to 10 December 2010. Addendum. Part two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its sixteenth session | publisher=United Nations
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| | location=Geneva, Switzerland | url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2010/cop16/eng/07a01.pdf#page=2 | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}, p.3, paragraph 4. Document [http://unfccc.int/documentation/documents/advanced_search/items/6911.php?priref=600006173 available] in UN languages and text format.</ref> Meeting this target would require substantial reductions in anthropogenic {{CO2}} emissions.<ref>Ch 2: Which emission pathways are consistent with a 2 °C or 1.5 °C temperature limit?, in {{harvnb|UNEP|2010|pp=28–29}}</ref>
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| Limiting global warming to below 2 °C would imply a reduction in surface ocean pH of 0.16 from pre-industrial levels. This would represent a substantial decline in surface ocean pH.<ref name="good 2 degrees celsius">{{harvnb|Good|others|2010|loc=Executive Summary}}</ref>
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| ===Climate engineering===
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| [[Climate engineering]] (mitigating temperature or pH effects of emissions) has been proposed as a possible response to ocean acidification. The IAP (2009)<ref name="iap statement"/> statement cautioned against climate engineering as a policy response:<blockquote>Mitigation approaches such as adding chemicals to counter the effects of acidification are likely to be expensive, only partly effective and only at a very local scale, and may pose additional unanticipated risks to the marine environment. There has been very little research on the feasibility and impacts of these approaches. Substantial research is needed before these techniques could be applied.</blockquote>
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| Reports by the WGBU (2006),<ref name="wbgu ocean acidification"/> the UK's [[Royal Society]] (2009),<ref>Summary, in {{harvnb|UK Royal Society|2009|pp=ix-xii}}</ref> and the [[US National Research Council]] (2011)<ref>{{Cite book | at=[http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12781&page=53 Box 5.1: Geoengineering] | chapter=Ch 5: Key Elements of America's Climate Choices | chapter-url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12781&page=51
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| | ref=harv {{inconsistent citations}}}}, in {{harvnb|US NRC|2011|pp=52–53}}</ref> warned of the potential risks and difficulties associated with climate engineering.
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| ====Iron fertilization====
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| [[Iron fertilization]] of the ocean could stimulate photosynthesis in [[phytoplankton]] (see [[Iron Hypothesis]]). The phytoplankton would convert the ocean's dissolved carbon dioxide into [[carbohydrate]] and oxygen gas, some of which would sink into the deeper ocean before oxidizing. More than a dozen open-sea experiments confirmed that adding iron to the ocean increases [[photosynthesis]] in phytoplankton by up to 30 times.<ref>{{cite book|last=Trujillo|first=Alan|title=Essentials of Oceanography|year=2011|publisher=Pearson Education, Inc.|isbn=9780321668127|pages=157}}</ref> While this approach has been proposed as a potential solution to the ocean acidification problem, mitigation of surface ocean acidification might increase acidification in the less-inhabited deep ocean.<ref name=cao>{{Cite journal| last=Cao | first=L. | coauthors=Caldeira, K. | year=2010 | title=Can ocean iron fertilization mitigate ocean acidification? | journal=[[Climatic Change]] | volume=99 | pages=303–311 | doi=10.1007/s10584-010-9799-4 | issue=1–2| ref=harv}}</ref>
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| | |
| A report by the UK's Royal Society (2009)<ref>Sec 2.3.1 Ocean fertilisation methods, in Ch 2: Carbon dioxide removal techniques, in {{harvnb|UK Royal Society|2009|pp=16–19}}</ref> reviewed the approach for effectiveness, affordability, timeliness and safety. The rating for affordability was "medium", or "not expected to be very cost-effective." For the other three criteria, the ratings ranged from "low" to "very low" (i.e., not good). For example, in regards to safety, the report found a "[high] potential for undesirable ecological side effects," and that ocean fertilization "may increase anoxic regions of ocean ('[[dead zone (ecology)|dead zone]]s')."<ref name="uk royal society table 2.8">Table 2.8, in: Sec 2.3.1 Ocean fertilisation methods, in Ch 2: Carbon dioxide removal techniques, in {{harvnb|UK Royal Society|2009|p=18}}</ref>
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| ===Carbon negative fuels===
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| {{Main|Carbon neutral fuel}}
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| [[Carbonic acid]] can be extracted from [[seawater]] as [[carbon dioxide]] for use in making [[synthetic fuel]].<ref>{{Cite report |last= DiMascio |first= Felice |coauthors= Willauer, Heather D. ; Hardy, Dennis R. ; Lewis, M. Kathleen ; Williams, Frederick W. |date= July 23, 2010 |title= ''Extraction of Carbon Dioxide from Seawater by an Electrochemical Acidification Cell. Part 1 - Initial Feasibility Studies'' |publisher= Chemistry Division, Navy Technology Center for Safety and Survivability, [[U.S. Naval Research Laboratory]] |location= Washington, DC |type= memorandum report |url= http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA544002 |accessdate= September 7, 2012}}</ref><ref name= Willauer2011>{{Cite report |last= Willauer |first= Heather D. |coauthors= DiMascio, Felice; Hardy, Dennis R.; Lewis, M. Kathleen; Williams, Frederick W. |date= April 11, 2011 |title= ''Extraction of Carbon Dioxide from Seawater by an Electrochemical Acidification Cell. Part 2 - Laboratory Scaling Studies'' |publisher= Chemistry Division, Navy Technology Center for Safety and Survivability, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory |location= Washington, DC |type= memorandum report |url= http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA544072 |accessdate= September 7, 2012}}</ref> If the resulting [[Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion|flue]] [[exhaust gas]] was subject to [[carbon capture]], then the process would be [[carbon negative]] over time, resulting in permanent extraction of inorganic carbon from seawater and the atmosphere with which seawater is in equilibrium. Based on the energy requirements, this process was estimated to cost about $50 per tonne of {{chem|CO|2}}.<ref name=Eisaman2012>{{Cite journal |last= Eisaman |first= Matthew D. |coauthors=''et al.'' |year= 2012 |title= CO<sub>2</sub> extraction from seawater using bipolar membrane electrodialysis |journal= Energy and Environmental Science |volume= 5 |issue= 6 |pages= 7346–52 |doi= 10.1039/C2EE03393C |url= http://69.12.216.122/co2extraction.pdf |accessdate= September 7, 2012 |ref= harv}}</ref>
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| | |
| ==Gallery==
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| <center><gallery>
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| File:WOA05 GLODAP pd pH AYool.png | "Present day" (1990s) sea surface pH
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| File:WOA05 GLODAP pd ALK AYool.png|Present day alkalinity
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| File:WOA05 GLODAP pd aco2 AYool.png | "Present day" (1990s) sea surface anthropogenic {{chem|CO|2}}
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| File:WOA05 GLODAP invt aco2 AYool.png | Vertical inventory of "present day" (1990s) anthropogenic {{chem|CO|2}}
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| File:WOA05 GLODAP del co3 AYool.png | Change in surface {{chem|CO|3|2-}} ion from the 1700s to the 1990s
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| File:WOA05 GLODAP pd DIC AYool.png|Present day DIC
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| File:WOA05 GLODAP pi DIC AYool.png|Pre-Industrial DIC
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| File:GLODAP sea-surf CFC11 AYool.png|Present day CFC-11
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| File:GLODAP sea-surf CFC12 AYool.png|Present day CFC-12
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| Image:oa-sami.jpg | A [[NOAA]] ([[Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory|AOML]]) ''in situ'' {{chem|CO|2}} concentration sensor, attached to a Coral Reef Early Warning System station, utilized in conducting ocean acidification studies near coral reef areas
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| Image:Oa-buoy-enrique-reef.jpg | A [[NOAA]] ([[Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory|PMEL]]) moored autonomous {{chem|CO|2}} buoy used for measuring {{chem|CO|2}} concentration and ocean acidification studies
| |
| </gallery></center>
| |
| | |
| ==See also==
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| {{Portal|Environment|Marine life|Global warming|Water}}
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| *[[Biological pump]]
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| *[[Carbon dioxide sinks]]
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| *[[Continental shelf pump]]
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| *[[Estuarine acidification]]
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| *[[Oceanography]]
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}
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| <!-- Note:
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| * The following references are used as part of the [[Template:Harvnb]] template. Removing these references will break some of the citations used in this article.
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| * please add new entries in alphabetical order of author's last name.
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| * These are the 'general references' to the source; please do not incorporate quotes, etc. here.
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| * 'citation' works better than 'cite xxx'.
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| -->
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| *{{Cite journal
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| | ref=CITEREFClarkeothers2007
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| | author=Clarke, L., ''et al.''
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| | date=July 2007
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| | title=Scenarios of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Atmospheric Concentrations. Sub-report 2.1A of Synthesis and Assessment Product 2.1 by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research
| |
| | publisher=Department of Energy, Office of Biological & Environmental Research
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| | location=Washington, DC., USA
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| | url=http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/sap/sap2-1/finalreport/default.htm
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| | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
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| }}
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| *{{Cite journal
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| | title=An updated review of developments in climate science research since IPCC AR4. A report by the AVOID consortium
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| | ref=CITEREFGoodothers2010
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| | author=Good, P., ''et al.''
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| | year=2010
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| | url=http://archive.theccc.org.uk/aws2/4th%20Budget/fourthbudget_supporting_research_reviewofclimatescience_developements_since_IPPC_AR4.pdf
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| | publisher=Committee on Climate Change
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| | location=London, UK
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| | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
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| }}. [http://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/the-fourth-carbon-budget-reducing-emissions-through-the-2020s-2/ Report website.]
| |
| *{{Cite journal
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| | title=Geoengineering the climate: science, governance and uncertainty
| |
| | author=UK Royal Society
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| | url=http://royalsociety.org/uploadedFiles/Royal_Society_Content/policy/publications/2009/8693.pdf
| |
| | publisher=UK Royal Society
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| | location=London
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| | date=September 2009
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| | isbn=978-0-85403-773-5
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| | ref=harv
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| | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
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| }}, RS Policy document 10/09. [http://royalsociety.org/policy/publications/2009/geoengineering-climate/ Report website.]
| |
| *{{Cite journal
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| | title=The Emissions Gap Report: Are the Copenhagen Accord pledges sufficient to limit global warming to 2°C or 1.5°C? A preliminary assessment
| |
| | date=November 2010
| |
| | url=http://www.unep.org/publications/ebooks/emissionsgapreport/
| |
| | author=UNEP
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| | publisher=United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
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| | location=Nairobi, Kenya
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| | isbn=978-92-807-3134-7
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| | ref=harv
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| | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
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| }}
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| *{{Cite book
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| | year=2011
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| | title=America's Climate Choices. A report by the Committee on America's Climate Choices, US National Research Council (US NRC)
| |
| | author=US NRC
| |
| | url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12781
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| | publisher=National Academies Press
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| | location=Washington, DC, USA
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| | isbn=978-0-309-14585-5
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| | ref=harv
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| | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
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| }}
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| *{{Cite book
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| | year=2006
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| | title=Special Report: The Future Oceans – Warming Up, Rising High, Turning Sour
| |
| | author=WBGU
| |
| | url=http://www.wbgu.de/fileadmin/templates/dateien/veroeffentlichungen/sondergutachten/sn2006/wbgu_sn2006_en.pdf
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| | publisher=WBGU
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| | location=Berlin, Germany
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| | isbn=3-936191-14-X
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| | ref=harv
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| | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
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| }}. [http://www.wbgu.de/en/special-reports/sr-2006-the-future-oceans/ Report website.]
| |
| | |
| ==Further reading==
| |
| | |
| *Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre (ACE CRC) (2008). [http://www.acecrc.org.au/uploaded/117/797619_20pa02_acidification_0805.pdf Position analysis: CO<sub>2</sub> emissions and climate change: Ocean impacts and adaptation issues.] ISSN: 1835–7911. Hobart, Tasmania.
| |
| *{{Cite journal|last=Cicerone|first=R.|coauthors=J. Orr, P. Brewer ''et al.''|year=2004|title=The Ocean in a High {{chem|CO|2}} World|url=http://www.ipsl.jussieu.fr/~jomce/pubs/Cicerone_etal_2004_EOS.pdf|journal=[[Eos (journal)|Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union]]|publisher=[[American Geophysical Union]]|volume=85|issue=37|pages=351–353|doi=10.1029/2004EO370007|bibcode=2004EOSTr..85R.351C|ref=harv}}
| |
| *{{Cite journal|last=Doney|first=S. C. |year=2006|title=The Dangers of Ocean Acidification|url=|journal=[[Scientific American]] |issn=0036-8733|volume=294|issue=3|pages=58–65 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0306-58|pmid=16502612|ref=harv}}, ([http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID=00057536-E87F-13F5-A75F83414B7FFE9F Article preview only]).
| |
| *{{Cite journal|last=Feely|first=R. A.|coauthors=Sabine, Christopher L.; Lee, Kitack; Berelson, Will; Kleypas, Joanie; Fabry, Victoria J.; Millero, Frank J.|year=2004|title=Impact of Anthropogenic {{chem|CO|2}} on the {{chem|CaCO|3}} System in the Oceans|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;305/5682/362|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=305|issue=5682|pages=362–366|doi=10.1126/science.1097329|pmid=15256664|bibcode = 2004Sci...305..362F|ref=harv }}
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| *{{Cite journal| last1=Harrould-Kolieb | first1=E. | last2=Savitz | first2=J. | year=2008 | url=http://na.oceana.org/en/news-media/publications/reports/acid-test-can-we-save-our-oceans-from-co2 | title=Acid Test: Can We Save Our Oceans From CO<sub>2</sub>? | journal=Oceana| ref=harv }}
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| *{{Cite news|last=[[Caspar Henderson|Henderson]]|first=Caspar|title=Ocean acidification: the other CO<sub>2</sub> problem|url=http://environment.newscientist.com/article/mg19125631.200|publisher=[[NewScientist]].com news service|date=2006-08-05}}{{Dead link|date=December 2013}}
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| *{{Cite journal|last=Jacobson|first=M. Z.|coauthors=|year=2005|title=Studying ocean acidification with conservative, stable numerical schemes for nonequilibrium air-ocean exchange and ocean equilibrium chemistry|url=|journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] – Atmospheres|volume=110|issue=|pages=D07302|doi=10.1029/2004JD005220|bibcode=2005JGRD..11007302J|ref=harv}}
| |
| *{{cite journal|last=Kim|first=Rakhyun E.|title=Is a New Multilateral Environmental Agreement on Ocean Acidification Necessary?|journal=Review of European Community & International Environmental Law|year=2012|volume=21|issue=3|pages=243–258|doi=10.1111/reel.12000.x|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/reel.12000.x/asset/reel12000.pdf?v=1&t=hje8up3l&s=acfe7a98dabdf9fd728223ed0266031e9c9b1d83|ref=harv}}
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| *Kleypas, J. A., R. A. Feely, V. J. Fabry, C. Langdon, C. L. Sabine, and L. L. Robbins. (2006). [http://www.ucar.edu/communications/Final_acidification.pdf Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs and Other Marine Calcifiers: A Guide for Further Research], report of a workshop held 18–20 April 2005, St. Petersburg, FL, sponsored by [[National Science Foundation]], NOAA and the U.S. Geological Survey, 88pp.
| |
| *{{Cite news| last=[[Elizabeth Kolbert|Kolbert]] | first=E. | title=The Darkening Sea: Carbon emissions and the ocean | publisher=[[The New Yorker]] | date=2006-11-20 | url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/11/20/061120fa_fact_kolbert }}
| |
| *Riebesell, U., V. J. Fabry, L. Hansson and J.-P. Gattuso (Eds.). (2010). [http://www.epoca-project.eu/index.php/Home/Guide-to-OA-Research/ Guide to best practices for ocean acidification research and data reporting], 260 p. Luxembourg: [[Publications Office of the European Union]].
| |
| *{{Cite journal|last=Sabine|first=C. L.|coauthors=Feely, Richard A.; Gruber, Nicolas; Key, Robert M.; Lee, Kitack; Bullister, John L. ''et al.''|year=2004|title=The Oceanic Sink for Anthropogenic {{chem|CO|2}}
| |
| |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/305/5682/367|journal=Science|volume=305|issue=5682|pages=367–371|doi=10.1126/science.1097403|pmid=15256665|bibcode = 2004Sci...305..367S|ref=harv }}
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| *{{Cite journal|last=Stone|first=R. |year=2007|title=A World Without Corals?|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/316/5825/678|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=316|issue=5825|pages=678–681|doi=10.1126/science.316.5825.678|pmid=17478692|ref=harv}}
| |
| | |
| ==External links==
| |
| '''Scientific sources:'''
| |
| *[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=threatening-ocean-life How Acidification Threatens Oceans from the Inside Out] [[Scientific American]] August 9, 2010 by Marah J. Hardt and [[Carl Safina]]
| |
| *[http://royalsociety.org/displaypagedoc.asp?id=13539 Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide], report by the [[Royal Society]] (UK)
| |
| *[http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter5.pdf AR4 WG1 Chapter 5: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level], [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]]
| |
| *[http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/yos/resource/01state_of_science.pdf State of the Science FACT SHEET: Ocean acidification], [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]
| |
| *[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center] (CDIAC), the primary data analysis center of the [[United States Department of Energy|U.S. Department of Energy]] (located at [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]])
| |
| *[http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/ocean-acidification/ Ocean acidification introduction], [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
| |
| *[http://csiro.au/multimedia/Climate-change-threat-to-Southern-Ocean.html Climate change threatening the Southern Ocean], report by [[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation|CSIRO]]
| |
| *[http://www.ocean-acidification.net/ The Ocean in a High {{chem|CO|2}} World], an international science symposium series
| |
| *[http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=169 The Acid Ocean – the Other Problem with {{chem|CO|2}} Emission], [[David Archer (scientist)]], a [[RealClimate]] discussion
| |
| *[http://oceanacidification.wordpress.com/ Regularly updated "blog" of ocean acidification publications and news], [http://www.obs-vlfr.fr/~gattuso/ Jean-Pierre Gattuso]
| |
| *[http://www.pacificscience.org/tfoceanacidification.html Task Force on Ocean Acidification in the Pacific], including recent presentations on ocean acidification, [[Pacific Science Association]]
| |
| *[http://www.thew2o.net/events/oceans/oa.php ''Ocean Acidification''], a multimedia, interactive site from [http://www.thew2o.net The World Ocean Observatory]
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| *[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kQMZfCKuFIQ Acidic Oceans: Why should we care? Perspectives in ocean science], Andrew Dickson, [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]]
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| *[http://site.videoproject.com/coralreefs/ Climate Change: Coral Reefs on the Edge] A video presentation by Prof. [[Ove Hoegh-Guldberg (biologist)|Ove Hoegh-Guldberg]] on impact of ocean acidification on coral reefs
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| *[http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/01/science/new-studies-of-permian-extinction-shed-light-on-the-great-dying.html Life in the Sea Found Its Fate in a Paroxysm of Extinction] April 30, 2012
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| *[http://i2i.loven.gu.se/AcidOcean/AcidOcean.htm Ocean acidification virtual lab]
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| *[http://dels.nas.edu/Materials/Booklets/Ocean-Acidification/ Ocean Acidification: Starting with the Science], a booklet from the Division on Earth & Life Studies of the [[United States National Research Council]] (released April 2011)
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| *[http://oceanacidification.nas.edu/ Ocean Acidification], a [[United States National Academy of Sciences]]/ National Research Council website that includes downloadable figures and interviews with ocean scientists
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| *[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=ancient-ocean-acidification-intimates-long-recovery-from-climate-change Ancient Ocean Acidification Intimates Long Recovery from Climate Change], July 22, 2010
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| *[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_4_181/ai_n58571638/ Acidification alters fish behavior: higher carbon dioxide in oceans may affect brain chemistry] February 25, 2012 [[Science News]]
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| *[http://www.imber.info/index.php/Science/Working-Groups/SOLAS-IMBER-Carbon/Subgroup-3/ Coordination of international research efforts and synthesis activities in ocean acidification.] IMBER/SOLAS
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| '''Educational sites:'''
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| *[http://www.imber.info/index.php/Science/Working-Groups/SOLAS-IMBER-Carbon/Subgroup-3 Understanding Ocean Acidification -- Educational Site from Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary -- Education Team]
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| '''
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| '''Scientific projects:'''
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| *[http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-videos/dr-francisco-chavez-ocean-acidification ''Dr. Francisco Chavez on Ocean Acidification'' – Smithsonian Ocean Portal]
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| *[http://epoca-project.eu/ European Project of Ocean Acidification] (EPOCA), a 4-year-long EU initiative to investigate ocean acidification (initiated June 2008)
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| *[http://bioacid.ifm-geomar.de/index.htm Biological Impacts of Ocean Acidification] (BIOACID), a [[Germany|German]] initiative funded by [[Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Germany)|BMBF]]
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| *[http://www.oceanacidification.org.uk/ Ocean Acidification Research Programme] (UKOARP), a 5-year-long [[United Kingdom|UK]] initiative funded by [[Natural Environment Research Council|NERC]], [[Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs|Defra]] and [[Department of Energy and Climate Change|DECC]]
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| *[http://www.ozean-der-zukunft.de/english/research-areas/greenhouse-oceans/ocean-acidification/facts/ Research Program on Ocean Acidification] at the Cluster of Excellence "Future Ocean", [[Kiel]]
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| *[http://www.sfos.uaf.edu/oarc/ Ocean Acidification Research Center] at [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]
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| '''Government sources''':
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| *[http://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo35773 Effects of Climate Change and Ocean Acidification on Living Marine Organisms: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Oceans, Atmosphere, Fisheries, and Coast Guard of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, May 10, 2007]
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| *[http://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo7764 The Environmental and Economic Impacts of Ocean Acidification: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Oceans, Atmosphere, Fisheries, and Coast Guard of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, Second Session, April 22, 2010]
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| *[http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40143.pdf Ocean Acidification] [[Congressional Research Service]]
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| '''Popular media sources''':
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| *[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=threatening-ocean-life Threatening Oceans from the Inside Out: How Acidification Affects Marine Life], [[Scientific American]]
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| *[http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/11/20/061120fa_fact_kolbert "The Darkening Sea, article in The New Yorker magazine, Nov. 20, 2006 (requires registration)]
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| *[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/04/AR2006070400772_pf.html "Growing Acidity of Oceans May Kill Corals"], [[Washington Post]]
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| *[http://abcnews.go.com/Video/playerIndex?id=5008279&affil=wjla "Scientists Grapple with Ocean Acidification"], [[ABC News]]
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| *[http://abcnews.go.com/video/playerIndex?id=6248578 "Ocean Acidification & Climate"], by Clayton Sandell [[ABC News]]
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| *[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/philippe-cousteau/a-world-without-whales_b_254717.html A World Without Whales?] by [[Philippe Cousteau]], ''[[The Huffington Post]]''
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| *[http://www.oceana.org/climate/solutions/oceana/acidtest/ Acid Test: Can we save our oceans from {{chem|CO|2}}?], [[Oceana (non-profit group)|Oceana]]
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| *[http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/acidocean.html The Acid Ocean], [[Stanford University]]
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| *Sea Change (Parts [http://apps.seattletimes.com/reports/sea-change/2013/sep/11/pacific-ocean-perilous-turn-overview/ One], [http://apps.seattletimes.com/reports/sea-change/2013/sep/11/alaska-crab-industry/ Two], and [http://apps.seattletimes.com/reports/sea-change/2013/sep/11/oysters-hit-hard/ Three]), ''[[The Seattle Times]]''
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| '''Videos on Ocean Acidification''':
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| *[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=55D8TGRsl4k&feature=related ''The Other {{chem|CO|2}} Problem''], an EPOCA-commissioned educational animation created by students from [[Ridgeway School, Plympton|Ridgeway School]], [[Plymouth]]
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| *[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5cqCvcX7buo ''Acid Test: The Global Challenge of Ocean Acidification''], by [[Natural Resources Defense Council]]
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| *[http://aseachange.net/ ''A Sea Change: Imagine a world without fish''], an award-winning documentary and related blog about ocean acidification
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| *[http://www.greenpeace.org/new-zealand/en/Multimedia/Videos/Ocean-Acidification-in-a-nutshell/ ''Ocean Acidification in a Nutshell''], by [[Greenpeace Aotearoa New Zealand]]
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| *[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m-1fcNnJzaY&feature=youtu.be Ocean Acidification: An Ecosystem Facing Dissolution] by GEOMAR I Helmholtz-Centre for Ocean Research Kiel
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| ===Carbonate system calculators===
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| The following packages calculate the state of the carbonate system in seawater (including pH):
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| *[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/oceans/co2rprt.html CO2SYS], a stand-alone [[executable]] (also available in a [http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/eap/models.html version for Microsoft Excel/VBA])
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| *[http://cran.at.r-project.org/src/contrib/Descriptions/seacarb.html seacarb], a [[R (programming language)|R package]] for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Mac OS X]] and [[Linux]] (also available [http://www.obs-vlfr.fr/~gattuso/seacarb.php here])
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| *[http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/oceanography/faculty/zeebe_files/CO2_System_in_Seawater/csys.html CSYS], a [[MATLAB|Matlab script]]
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| {{human impact on the environment|state=expanded}}
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| {{Global warming|state=collapsed}}
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| {{marine pollution}}
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| {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Ocean Acidification}}
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| [[Category:Aquatic ecology]]
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| [[Category:Biological oceanography]]
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| [[Category:Carbon]]
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| [[Category:Chemical oceanography]]
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| [[Category:Fisheries]]
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| [[Category:Geochemistry]]
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| [[Category:Oceanography]]
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| [[Category:Effects of global warming]]
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| [[Category:Environmental impact by effect]]
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| {{Link FA|de}}
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