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| | I am Chantal from Reutlingen In Laisen. I am learning to play the Banjo. Other hobbies are Driving.<br><br>Also visit my site; [http://www.far-villa.com.tw/atx/index.php?option=com_phocaguestbook&view=guestbook&id=1 FIFA Coin generator] |
| The '''history of science and technology in the [[Indian Subcontinent]]''' begins with prehistoric human activity at [[Mehrgarh]], in present-day Pakistan, and continues through the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] to early states and empires. The [[British Raj|British colonial rule]] introduced some elements of western education in India. Following independence [[science and technology in the Republic of India]] has included [[Automobile industry in India|automobile engineering]], [[Information technology in India|information technology]], [[Communications in India|communications]] as well as [[Indian Space Research Organisation|space]], [[Indian Antarctic Program|polar]], and [[Nuclear power in India|nuclear sciences]].
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| ==Prehistory==
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| [[File:Hand-propelled wheel cart from Indus Valley Civilization.GIF|thumb|Hand-propelled wheel cart, Indus Valley Civilization (3000–1500 BCE). Housed at the [[National Museum, New Delhi]].]]
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| By 5500 BCE a number of sites similar to Mehrgarh had appeared, forming the basis of later chalcolithic cultures.<ref name=Kenoyer230/> The inhabitants of these sites maintained trading relations with [[Near East]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref name=Kenoyer230>Kenoyer, 230</ref>
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| This was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE.<ref name=R&U/> The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of [[drainage]] and [[sewerage]].<ref name=R&U>Rodda & Ubertini, 279</ref> Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial [[reservoir]]s at [[Girnar]] dated to 3000 BCE, and an early [[canal]] irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE.<ref>Rodda & Ubertini, 161</ref> [[Cotton]] was cultivated in the region by the 5th–4th millennia BCE.<ref>Stein, 47</ref> [[Sugarcane]] was originally from tropical South and Southeast Asia.<ref name=Sharpe/> Different species likely originated in different locations with ''S. barberi'' originating in India, and ''S. edule'' and ''S. officinarum'' coming from [[New Guinea]].<ref name=Sharpe>Sharpe (1998)</ref>
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| The inhabitants of the Indus valley developed a system of [[standardization]], using weights and measures, evident by the excavations made at the Indus valley sites.<ref name=Baber_b>Baber, 23</ref> This [[technical standard]]ization enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in [[angular measurement]] and measurement for construction.<ref name=Baber_b/> [[Calibration]] was also found in measuring devices along with multiple subdivisions in case of some devices.<ref name=Baber_b/> One of the earliest known [[Dock (maritime)|dock]]s is at [[Lothal]] (2400 BCE), located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt.<ref name="RaoQ"/> Modern oceanographers have observed that the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Harappans]] must have possessed knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the [[Sabarmati]], as well as exemplary [[hydrography]] and maritime engineering.<ref name="RaoQ">Rao, 27–28</ref>
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| Excavations at [[Balakot]] (c. 2500-1900 BCE), present day Pakistan, have yielded evidence of an early [[furnace]].<ref name=Dales/> The furnace was most likely used for the manufacturing of [[ceramic]] objects.<ref name=Dales>Dales, 3–22 [10]</ref> [[Oven]]s, dating back to the civilization's mature phase (c. 2500-1900 BCE), were also excavated at Balakot.<ref name=Dales/> The [[Kalibangan]] archeological site further yields evidence of potshaped [[hearth]]s, which at one site have been found both on ground and underground.<ref name=Baber20>Baber, 20</ref> [[Kiln]]s with fire and kiln chambers have also been found at the Kalibangan site.<ref name=Baber20/> [[File:Asokanpillar2.jpg|thumb|left|View of the Asokan Pillar at [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]]. One of the [[edicts of Ashoka]] (272—231 BCE) reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."<ref name=finger12>Finger, 12</ref>]]
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| Based on archaeological and textual evidence, [[Joseph E. Schwartzberg]] (2008)—a [[University of Minnesota]] [[professor emeritus]] of geography—traces the origins of [[Indian cartography]] to the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2500–1900 BCE).<ref name=Schwartzberg1/> The use of large scale constructional plans, cosmological drawings, and cartographic material was known in India with some regularity since the [[Vedic period]] (1st millennium BCE).<ref name=Schwartzberg1>"We now believe that some form of mapping was practiced in what is now India as early as the Mesolithic period, that surveying dates as far back as the Indus Civilization (ca. 2500–1900 BCE), and that the construction of large-scale plans, cosmographic maps, and other cartographic works has occurred continuously at least since the late Vedic age (first millennium BCE)" — ''Joseph E. Schwartzberg, 1301''.</ref> Climatic conditions were responsible for the destruction of most of the evidence, however, a number of excavated surveying instruments and measuring rods have yielded convincing evidence of early cartographic activity.<ref name=Schwartzberg1301-1302>Schwartzberg, 1301-1302</ref> Schwartzberg (2008)—on the subject of surviving maps—further holds that: 'Though not numerous, a number of map-like graffiti appear among the thousands of Stone Age Indian cave paintings; and at least one complex Mesolithic diagram is believed to be a representation of the cosmos.'<ref name=Schwartzberg1301>Schwartzberg, 1301</ref>
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| Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn [[plough]] dates back to 2500 BCE in the Indus Valley Civilization.<ref name=lal>Lal (2001)</ref> The earliest available [[sword]]s of copper discovered from the Harappan sites date back to 2300 BCE.<ref name=allchin1/> Swords have been recovered in archaeological findings throughout the [[Ganges]]–[[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jamuna]] [[Doab]] region of India, consisting of [[bronze]] but more commonly copper.<ref name=allchin1>Allchin, 111-112</ref>
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| ==Early kingdoms==
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| [[File:Ganesha ink.jpg|thumb|Ink drawing of Ganesha under an umbrella (early 19th century). [[Ink]], called ''masi'', an admixture of several chemical components, has been used in India since at least the 4th century BCE.<ref>Banerji, 673</ref> The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in early [[South India]].<ref>Sircar, 62</ref> Several [[Jain]] sutras in India were compiled in ink.<ref>Sircar, 67</ref> ]]
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| [[File:Hindu-arabic1.jpg|thumb|The ''Hindu-Arabic numeral'' system. The inscriptions on the edicts of Ashoka (1st millennium BCE) display this number system being used by the Imperial Mauryas.]]
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| The religious texts of the [[Vedic Period]] provide evidence for the use of [[History of large numbers|large numbers]].<ref name=hayashi2005-p360-361/> By the time of the last Veda, the ''[[Yajurveda|{{IAST|Yajurvedasaṃhitā}}]]'' (1200-900 BCE), numbers as high as <math>10^{12}</math> were being included in the texts.<ref name=hayashi2005-p360-361>Hayashi, 360-361</ref> For example, the ''[[mantra]]'' (sacrificial formula) at the end of the ''annahoma'' ("food-oblation rite") performed during the ''[[Ashvamedha|aśvamedha]]'' ("horse sacrifice"), and uttered just before-, during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a hundred to a trillion.<ref name=hayashi2005-p360-361/> The [[Satapatha Brahmana]] (9th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras.<ref>Seidenberg, 301-342</ref>
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| [[Baudhayana]] (c. 8th century BCE) composed the ''Baudhayana Sulba Sutra'', which contains examples of simple [[Pythagorean triples]], such as: <math>(3, 4, 5)</math>, <math>(5, 12, 13)</math>, <math>(8, 15, 17)</math>, <math>
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| (7, 24, 25)</math>, and <math>(12, 35, 37)</math><ref name=joseph229>Joseph, 229</ref> as well as a statement of the [[Pythagorean theorem]] for the sides of a square: "The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square."<ref name=joseph229/> It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a rectangle): "The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together."<ref name=joseph229/> Baudhayana gives a formula for the [[square root of two]].<ref name=cooke200>Cooke, 200</ref> Mesopotamian influence at this stage is considered likely.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 207}}</ref>
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| The earliest [[Indian astronomy|Indian astronomical]] text—named ''[[Vedanga Jyotisha|{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}]]''—dates back to between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, and details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events.<ref name= Subbaarayappa/>{{Verify source|date=July 2011}} The ''{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}'' also details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for empirical observation.<ref name= Subbaarayappa>Subbaarayappa, 25-41</ref> Since the ''{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}'' is a religious text, it has connections with [[Indian astrology]] and details several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of ''Adhimāsa''.<ref name=Tripathi08>Tripathi, 264-267</ref> ''[[Ritus]]'' and ''[[Yuga]]s'' are also described.<ref name=Tripathi08/> Tripathi (2008) holds that "Twenty-seven constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that time."<ref name=Tripathi08/>
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| The [[Egypt]]ian ''Papyrus of Kahun'' (1900 BCE) and literature of the [[Vedic period]] in India offer early records of [[veterinary medicine]].<ref>Thrusfield, 2</ref> Kearns & Nash (2008) state that mention of [[leprosy]] is described in the medical treatise ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' (6th century BCE). The [[Sushruta Samhita]] an [[Ayurvedic]] text contains 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, a detailed study on Anatomy, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources.<ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07>Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007)</ref><ref name=k&n08>Kearns & Nash (2008)</ref> However, ''The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine'' holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Hindu religious book ''[[Atharva-veda]]'', written by 1500–1200 BCE.<ref>Lock etc., 420</ref>
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| [[Cataract surgery]] was known to the physician [[Sushruta]] (6th century BCE).<ref name=finger66>Finger, 66</ref> Traditional cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the ''Jabamukhi Salaka'', a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.<ref name=finger66/> The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.<ref name=finger66/> Though this method was successful, Susruta cautioned that it should only be used when necessary.<ref name=finger66/> The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India.<ref>Lade & Svoboda, 85</ref>
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| During the 5th century BCE, the scholar [[Pāṇini]] had made several discoveries in the fields of [[phonetics]], [[phonology]], and [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]].<ref name=Ivic>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''Linguistics''.</ref> [[Pāṇini]]'s morphological analysis remained more advanced than any equivalent Western theory until the mid-20th century.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Staal | first1 = Frits | title = Universals: studies in Indian logic and linguistics | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year = 1988 | pages = 47 | accessdate = 2011-10-26}}</ref> [[Metal]] [[currency]] was minted in India before the 5th century BCE,<ref name=Dhavalikar>Dhavalikar, 330-338</ref><ref name=sellwood2008>Sellwood (2008)</ref> with coinage (400 BCE—100 CE) being made of [[silver]] and copper, bearing animal and plant symbols on them.<ref name=EBAllan&Stern>Allan & Stern (2008)</ref>
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| [[Zinc]] mines of Zawar, near [[Udaipur]], [[Rajasthan]], were active during 400 BCE.<ref name=Craddock>Craddock (1983)</ref> Diverse specimens of swords have been discovered in [[Fatehgarh]], where there are several varieties of hilt.<ref>F.R. Allchin, 111-112</ref> These swords have been variously dated to periods between 1700-1400 BCE, but were probably used more extensively during the opening centuries of the 1st millennium BCE.<ref name=Allchin114>Allchin, 114</ref> Archaeological sites in such as [[Malhar]], Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day [[Uttar Pradesh]] show iron implements from the period between 1800 BCE and 1200 BCE.<ref name=Tewari>Tewari (2003)</ref> Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of radio carbon dating.<ref name=Ceccarelli>Ceccarelli, 218</ref> Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BCE iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date of the technology's inception may be placed earlier.<ref name=Tewari/> In [[Southern India]] (present day [[Mysore]]) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BCE.<ref name=UCP/> These developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.<ref name=UCP>Drakonoff, 372</ref>
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| ==Post Maha Janapadas—High Middle Ages==
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| [[File:QtubIronPillar.JPG|thumb|The [[iron pillar of Delhi]] (375–413 CE). The first iron pillar was the Iron pillar of Delhi, erected at the times of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.]]
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| The ''[[Arthashastra]]'' of [[Kautilya]] mentions the construction of dams and bridges.<ref>Dikshitar, pg. 332</ref> The use of [[suspension bridge]]s using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible by about the 4th century.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''suspension bridge''.</ref> The ''[[stupa]]'', the precursor of the [[pagoda]] and [[torii]], was constructed by the 3rd century BCE.<ref name=Ency>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''Pagoda''.</ref><ref name=Jaanus>[http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/ Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System (2001), ''torii''.]</ref> Rock-cut [[step well]]s in the region date from 200-400 CE.<ref name=L&B/> Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at [[Bhinmal]] (850-950 CE) took place.<ref name=L&B>Livingston & Beach, xxiii</ref>
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| During the 1st millennium BCE, the [[Vaisheshika]] school of [[atomism]] was founded. The most important proponent of this school was [[Kanada]], an [[Indian philosophy|Indian philosopher]] who lived around 200 BCE.<ref>Oliver Leaman, ''Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy.'' Routledge, 1999, page 269.</ref> The school proposed that [[atom]]s are indivisible and eternal, can neither be created nor destroyed,<ref>{{harvnb|Chattopadhyaya|1986|pp=169–70}}</ref> and that each one possesses its own distinct {{IAST |viśeṣa}} (individuality).<ref>{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|2006|p=202}}</ref> It was further elaborated on by the [[Buddhist atomism|Buddhist school of atomism]], of which the philosophers [[Dharmakirti]] and [[Dignāga]] in the 7th century CE were the most important proponents. They considered atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and made of energy.<ref>(Stcherbatsky 1962 (1930). Vol. 1. P. 19)</ref>
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| By the beginning of the [[Common Era]] glass was being used for ornaments and casing in the region.<ref name=Ghosh/> Contact with the [[Greco-Roman world]] added newer techniques, and local artisans learnt methods of glass molding, decorating and coloring by the early centuries of the Common Era.<ref name=Ghosh>Ghosh, 219</ref> The [[Satavahana]] period further reveals short cylinders of composite glass, including those displaying a lemon yellow matrix covered with green glass.<ref name=Ghosh2>"Ornaments, Gems etc." (Ch. 10) in Ghosh 1990.</ref> [[Wootz]] originated in the region before the beginning of the common era.<ref>Srinivasan & Ranganathan</ref> Wootz was exported and traded throughout Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as [[Damascus steel]]. Archaeological evidence suggests that manufacturing process for Wootz was also in existence in South India before the Christian era.<ref name=Srinivasan94>Srinivasan (1994)</ref><ref>Srinivasan & Griffiths</ref>
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| Evidence for using bow-instruments for [[carding]] comes from India (2nd century CE).<ref name=Baber57>Baber, 57</ref> The mining of [[Diamond (gemstone)|diamonds]] and its early use as gemstones originated in India.<ref name=Wenk1>Wenk, 535-539</ref> [[Golconda]] served as an important early center for diamond mining and processing.<ref name=Wenk1/> Diamonds were then exported to other parts of the world.<ref name=Wenk1/> Early reference to diamonds comes from Sanskrit texts.<ref name=Encarta11>MSN Encarta (2007), [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557986/Diamond.html ''Diamond'']. [http://www.webcitation.org/5kwqi0eX3 Archived] 2009-10-31.</ref> The ''Arthashastra'' also mentions diamond trade in the region.<ref name=lee1>Lee, 685</ref> The [[Iron pillar of Delhi]] was erected at the times of [[Chandragupta II]] Vikramaditya (375–413).<ref>Balasubramaniam, R., 2002</ref> The [[Rasaratna Samuccaya]] (800 CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.<ref name=Craddock>Craddock, 13</ref>[[File:Ship compartments.jpg|thumb|left|Model of a [[Chola]] (200–848 CE) ship's hull, built by the [[Archaeological Survey of India|ASI]], based on a wreck 19 miles off the coast of Poombuhar, displayed in a Museum in [[Tirunelveli]].]]
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| The origins of the [[spinning wheel]] are unclear but India is one of the probable places of its origin.<ref>Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007), ''spinning wheel''.</ref><ref>Encyclopeedia Britnnica (2008). ''spinning''.</ref> The device certainly reached Europe from India by the 14th century CE.<ref>MSN Encarta (2008), [http://encarta.msn.com ''Spinning'']. [http://www.webcitation.org/query?id=1256962101378386 Archived] 2009-10-31.</ref> The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as ''charkhi'', the "wooden-worm-worked roller".<ref name="Baber57">Baber, 57</ref> This mechanical device was, in some parts of the region, driven by water power.<ref name="Baber57"/> The [[Ajanta caves]] yield evidence of a single roller [[cotton gin]] in use by the 5th century CE.<ref name=Babergin>Baber, 56</ref> This cotton gin was used until further innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.<ref name=Babergin/> Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.<ref name=Kieschnick11>Kieschnick, 258</ref> Each mission returned with different results on refining sugar.<ref name=Kieschnick11/>
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| (300-200 BCE) was a [[musical theory|musical theorist]] who authored a [[Sanskrit]] treatise on [[Prosody (music)|prosody]]. There is evidence that in his work on the enumeration of syllabic combinations, Pingala stumbled upon both the [[Pascal triangle]] and [[Binomial coefficients]], although he did not have knowledge of the [[Binomial theorem]] itself.<ref name=fowler96>Fowler, 11</ref><ref name=singh36>Singh, 623-624</ref> A description of [[binary numbers]] is also found in the works of Pingala.<ref>Sanchez & Canton, 37</ref> The Indians also developed the use of the law of signs in multiplication. Negative numbers and the subtrahend had been used in East Asia since the 2nd century BC, and Indian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the 7th century,<ref name=Smith>Smith (1958), page 258</ref> and their role in mathematical problems of debt was understood.<ref name=bourbaki49>Bourbaki (1998), page 49</ref> Although the Indians were not the first to use the subtrahend, they were the first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which did not appear in East Asian texts until 1299.<ref name=Smith>Smith (1958), page 257-258</ref> Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated,<ref name=bourbaki46>{{Harvnb|Bourbaki|1998|p=46}}</ref> and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.<ref name=bourbaki49/>
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| A [[decimal|decimal number system]] using hieroglyphics dates back to 3000 BC in Egypt,<ref>Georges Ifrah: ''From One to Zero. A Universal History of Numbers'', Penguin Books, 1988, ISBN 0-14-009919-0, pp. 200-213 (Egyptian Numerals)</ref> and was later in use in ancient India where the modern numeration system was developed.<ref name=irfah346>Ifrah, 346</ref> By the 9th century CE, the [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]] was transmitted from India through the Middle East and to the rest of the world.<ref name="Wigelsworth">{{cite book|author=Jeffrey Wigelsworth|title=Science And Technology in Medieval European Life|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VPDqnGGHpHYC&pg=PA18|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-33754-3|page=18}}</ref> The concept of [[zero|0]] as a number, and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India.<ref name=bourbaki46>Bourbaki, 46</ref> In India, practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number by the 9th century CE, even in case of division.<ref name=bourbaki46/><ref name=ebcal>Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007). ''algebra''</ref> [[Brahmagupta]] (598–668) was able to find (integral) solutions of [[Pell's equation]].<ref name=sw101>Stillwell, 72-73</ref> Conceptual design for a [[perpetual motion machine]] by [[Bhāskara II|Bhaskara II]] dates to 1150. He described a wheel that he claimed would run forever.<ref>Lynn Townsend White, Jr..</ref>
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| The [[Trigonometry|trigonometric]] functions of [[sine]] and [[versine]], from which it was trivial to derive the cosine, were used by the mathematician, [[Aryabhata]], in the late 5th century.<ref>O'Connor, J. J. & Robertson, E.F. (1996)</ref><ref>"Geometry, and its branch trigonometry, was the mathematics Indian astronomers used most frequently. In fact, the Indian astronomers in the third or fourth century, using a pre-Ptolemaic Greek table of chords, produced tables of sines and versines, from which it was trivial to derive cosines. This new system of trigonometry, produced in India, was transmitted to the Arabs in the late eighth century and by them, in an expanded form, to the Latin West and the Byzantine East in the twelfth century" - Pingree (2003).</ref> The [[calculus]] theorem now known as "[[Rolle's theorem]]" was stated by mathematician, [[Bhāskara II]], in the 12th century.<ref>Broadbent, 307–308</ref>
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| [[File:The Defeat of Baz Bahadur of Malwa by the Mughal Troops, 1561, Akbarnama.jpg|thumb|[[Akbarnama]]—written by August 12, 1602—depicts the defeat of [[Baz Bahadur]] of [[Malwa]] by the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] troops, 1561. The Mughals extensively improved metal weapons and armor used by the armies of India.]]
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| [[Indigo]] was used as a dye in India, which was also a major center for its production and processing.<ref name=k&c>Kriger & Connah, 120</ref> The ''Indigofera tinctoria'' variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.<ref name=k&c/> Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.<ref name=k&c/> The [[cashmere wool]] fiber, also known as ''pashm'' or ''pashmina'', was used in the handmade shawls of Kashmir.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''cashmere''.</ref> The woolen shawls from [[Kashmir]] region find written mention between 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.<ref name=ebpasm>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''Kashmir shawl''.</ref> Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the [[Gupta dynasty]],<ref name=Adas>Shaffer, 311</ref> and the earliest reference to candied sugar comes from India.<ref name=Kieschnick1>Kieschnick (2003)</ref> [[Jute]] was also cultivated in India.<ref name=ebjute>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''jute''.</ref> [[Muslin]] was named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, [[Mosul]], in what is now [[Iraq]], but the fabric actually originated from [[Dhaka]] in what is now [[Bangladesh]].<ref>[[Banglapedia]] (2008), [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/M_0427.htm ''Muslin''], [[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]].</ref><ref name=Muslin>Ahmad, 5–26</ref> In the 9th century, an [[Islamic economics in the world|Arab merchant]] named Sulaiman makes note of the material's origin in [[Bengal]] (known as ''Ruhml'' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]).<ref name=Muslin/>
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| European scholar Francesco I reproduced a number of Indian maps in his magnum opus ''La Cartografia Antica dell India''.<ref name=Sircar2>Sircar 328</ref> Out of these maps, two have been reproduced using a manuscript of ''Lokaprakasa'', originally compiled by the polymath Ksemendra ([[Kashmir]], 11th century CE), as a source.<ref name=Sircar2/> The other manuscript, used as a source by Francesco I, is titled ''Samgraha'.<ref name=Sircar2/>
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| ==Late Middle Ages==
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| [[File:Jantar Mantar, Delhi, 1826.jpg|thumb|left|[[Yantra Mandir (Delhi)|Jantar Mantar, Delhi]]—consisting of 13 architectural astronomy instruments, built by [[Jai Singh II]] of Jaipur, from 1724 onwards.]]
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| [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]] (c. 1340 – 1425) and his [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] developed and founded [[mathematical analysis]].<ref>{{cite web
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| | publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland | title=Biography of Madhava
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| |author = J J O'Connor and E F Robertson
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| |url=http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Madhava.html
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| | title=Mādhava of Sangamagrāma
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| | accessdate=2007-09-08
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| }}
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| </ref> The infinite series for [[pi|π]] was stated by him and he made use of the series expansion of <math>\arctan x</math> to obtain an infinite series expression, now known as the ''Madhava-Gregory series'', for <math>\pi</math>. Their rational approximation of the ''error'' for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for <math>\pi</math>. They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,<ref name=roy/> <math>104348/33215</math> for <math>\pi</math> correct up to nine decimal places, ''i.e.'' <math>3.141592653 </math>.<ref name=roy>Roy, 291-306</ref>
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| The development of the [[Series (mathematics)|series]] expansions for [[trigonometric function]]s (sine, cosine, and [[arc tangent]]) was carried out by mathematicians of the Kerala School in the 15th century CE.<ref name=sll/> Their work, completed two centuries before the invention of [[calculus]] in Europe, provided what is now considered the first example of a [[power series]] (apart from geometric series).<ref name=sll>Stillwell, 173</ref>
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| [[Sher Shah Suri|Shēr Shāh]] of northern India issued silver currency bearing Islamic motifs, later imitated by the [[Mughal empire]].<ref name=EBAllan&Stern/> The Chinese merchant [[Ma Huan]] (1413–51) noted that gold coins, known as ''fanam'', were issued in [[Cochin]] and weighed a total of one ''fen'' and one ''li'' according to the Chinese standards.<ref name=Chaudhuri223>Chaudhuri, 223</ref> They were of fine quality and could be exchanged in China for 15 silver coins of four-''li'' weight each.<ref name=Chaudhuri223/>
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| In 1500, [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] of the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]], in his [[Tantrasangraha]], revised Aryabhata's elliptical model for the planets Mercury and Venus. His equation of the centre for these planets remained the most accurate until the time of [[Johannes Kepler]] in the 17th century.<ref>Joseph, George G. (2000), ''The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics'', Penguin Books, ISBN 0-691-00659-8.
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| </ref>
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| The seamless [[celestial globe]] was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589-90 CE), and twenty other such [[globe]]s were later produced in [[Lahore]] and Kashmir during the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref name=Emilie/> Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any [[wiktionary:seam|seams]], even with modern technology.<ref name=Emilie/> These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of [[lost-wax casting]] in order to produce these globes.<ref name=Emilie>Savage-Smith (1985)</ref>[[File:Mir Sayyid Ali - Portrait of a Young Indian Scholar.jpg|thumb|left|Portrait of a young Indian scholar, [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] miniature by Mir Sayyid Ali, c. 1550.]]
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| Gunpowder and gunpowder weapons were transmitted to India through the [[Mongol invasions of India]].<ref name="Kn">{{cite book|author=Iqtidar Alam Khan|title=Gunpowder And Firearms: Warfare In Medieval India|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-566526-0}}</ref><ref name="kn2"/> The Mongols were defeated by [[Alauddin Khilji]] of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], and some of the Mongol soldiers remained in northern India after their conversion to Islam.<ref name="kn2">{{cite book|author=Iqtidar Alam Khan|title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pzZFUcDpDzsC&pg=PA157|date=25 April 2008|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-5503-8|page=157}}</ref> It was written in the ''Tarikh-i Firishta'' (1606–1607) that the envoy of the Mongol ruler [[Hulegu Khan]] was presented with a [[pyrotechnics]] display upon his arrival in [[Delhi]] in 1258 CE.<ref name="khan 9 10">Khan, 9-10</ref> As a part of an embassy to India by [[Timur]]id leader Shah Rukh (1405–1447), 'Abd al-Razzaq mentioned naphtha-throwers mounted on elephants and a variety of pyrotechnics put on display.<ref name=GF2>Partington, 217</ref> Firearms known as ''top-o-tufak'' also existed in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] by as early as 1366 CE.<ref name="khan 9 10"/> From then on the employment of [[gunpowder warfare]] in the region was prevalent, with events such as the siege of [[Belgaum]] in 1473 CE by the [[Sultan]] Muhammad Shah Bahmani.<ref name="khan 10">Khan, 10</ref>
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| In ''A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder'', [[James Riddick Partington]] describes the gunpowder warfare of 16th and 17th century [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] India, and writes that "Indian war rockets were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bamboo rods, a rocket-body lashed to the rod, and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic... The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahāngir."<ref name=partingtonquote>Partington, 226</ref>
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| By the 16th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in [[Tanjore]], [[Dacca]], [[Adil Shahi|Bijapur]] and [[Murshidabad]].<ref name=GF3>Partington, 225</ref> Guns made of bronze were recovered from [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] (1504) and [[Diu, India|Diu]] (1533).<ref name="partingtonquote">Partington, 226</ref> [[Gujarāt]] supplied Europe saltpeter for use in gunpowder warfare during the 17th century.<ref name=IndiaBritannica>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''India.''</ref> [[Bengal]] and [[Malwa|Mālwa]] participated in saltpeter production.<ref name=IndiaBritannica/> The Dutch, French, Portuguese, and English used [[Chhapra]] as a center of saltpeter refining.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''Chāpra.''</ref>
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| The construction of water works and aspects of water technology in India is described in [[Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] works.<ref name=Siddiqui/> During medieval times, the diffusion of Indian and Persian irrigation technologies gave rise to an advanced irrigation system which bought about economic growth and also helped in the growth of material culture.<ref name=Siddiqui>Siddiqui, 52–77</ref> The founder of the [[cashmere wool]] industry is traditionally held to be the 15th-century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin, who introduced weavers from [[Central Asia]].<ref name=ebpasm/>
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| The scholar Sadiq Isfahani of [[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jaunpur]] compiled an [[atlas]] of the parts of the world which he held to be 'suitable for human life'.<ref name=Schwartzberg1302>Schwartzberg, 1302</ref> The 32 sheet atlas—with maps oriented towards the south as was the case with Islamic works of the era—is part of a larger scholarly work compiled by Isfahani during 1647 CE.<ref name=Schwartzberg1302/> According to Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2008): 'The largest known Indian map, depicting the former [[Rajput]] capital at [[Amber]] in remarkable house-by-house detail, measures 661 × 645 cm. (260 × 254 in., or approximately 22 × 21 ft).'<ref name=Schwartzberg1303>Schwartzberg, 1303</ref>
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| ==Colonial era==
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| <Center>
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| <Gallery>
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| Image:HyderAli.jpg|The armies of Sultan [[Hyder Ali]] of Mysore employed rockets whose gunpowder was packed in metal cylinders instead of paper ones.
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| File:IndiaRailwaysCompletedBy1871.jpg|Extent of the railway network in India in 1871; construction had begun in 1856.
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| File:India railways1909a.jpg|The Indian railways network in 1909.
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| File:AatyenBose1925.jpg|Physicist [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] is known for his work on the [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] during the 1920s.
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| </Gallery>
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| </Center>
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| Early volumes of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' described cartographic charts made by the seafaring [[Dravidian people]].<ref name=Sircar3>Sircar 330</ref> In ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopædia Britannica (2008)]]'', Stephen Oliver Fought & John F. Guilmartin, Jr. describe the gunpowder technology in 18th-century [[Mysore]]:<ref name=r&ms>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''rocket and missile system''.</ref>
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| [[Hyder Ali]], prince of Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the combustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Although individually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Hyder Ali's son, [[Tippu Sultan]], continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. In battles at [[Seringapatam]] in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British.
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| By the end of the 18th century the postal system in the region had reached high levels of efficiency.<ref name=Peabody1/> According to Thomas Broughton, the [[Maharaja]] of [[Jodhpur]] sent daily offerings of fresh flowers from his capital to Nathadvara (320 km) and they arrived in time for the first religious [[Darśana|Darshan]] at sunrise.<ref name=Peabody1>Peabody, 71</ref> Later this system underwent modernization with the establishment of the [[British Raj]].<ref name=Lowe/> The Post Office Act XVII of 1837 enabled the [[Governor-General of India]] to convey messages by post within the territories of the [[East India Company]].<ref name=Lowe/> Mail was available to some officials without charge, which became a controversial privilege as the years passed.<ref name=Lowe/> The Indian Post Office service was established on October 1, 1837.<ref name=Lowe>Lowe, 134</ref> The British also constructed a vast [[railway]] network in the region for both strategic and commercial reasons.<ref>Seaman, 348</ref>
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| The British education system, aimed at producing able civil and administrative services candidates, exposed a number of Indians to foreign institutions.<ref name=Rajendran>Raja (2006)</ref> [[Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose]] (1858–1937), [[Prafulla Chandra Ray]] (1861-1944), [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] (1894–1974), [[Meghnad Saha]] (1893–1956), [[P. C. Mahalanobis]] (1893–1972), [[C. V. Raman|Sir C. V. Raman]] (1888–1970), [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] (1910–1995), [[Homi Bhabha]] (1909–1966), [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]] (1887–1920), [[Vikram Sarabhai]] (1919–1971), [[Har Gobind Khorana]] (1922–2011), and [[Harish Chandra]] (1923–1983) were among the notable scholars of this period.<ref name=Rajendran/>
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| Extensive interaction between colonial and native sciences was seen during most of the colonial era.<ref name=Arnold211>Arnold, 211</ref> Western science came to be associated with the requirements of nation building rather than being viewed entirely as a colonial entity,<ref name=Arnold212/> especially as it continued to fuel necessities from agriculture to commerce.<ref name=Arnold211/> Scientists from India also appeared throughout Europe.<ref name=Arnold212>Arnold, 212</ref> By the time of India's independence colonial science had assumed importance within the westernized intelligentsia and establishment.<ref name=Arnold212/>
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| {{Further2|For science and technology in the [[Republic of India]] refer to [[Science and technology in the Republic of India]].}}
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| {{Further2|For science and technology in [[Pakistan]] refer to [[Science and technology in Pakistan]].}}
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| ==See also==
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| * [[Science and technology in India]]
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| * [[List of Indian inventions]]
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| * [[Information technology in India]]
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| * [[Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture]]
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| * [[Digit (magazine)]]
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| ==Notes==
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| {{Reflist|3}}
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| ==References==
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| * Ahmad, S. (2005), "Rise and Decline of the Economy of Bengal", ''Asian Affairs'', '''27''' (3): 5–26.
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| * Nair, C.G.R. (2004), [http://www.kerala.gov.in/keralcallsep04/p22-24.pdf "Science and technology in free India"], ''Government of Kerala—Kerala Call'', Retrieved on 2006-07-09.
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| * O'Connor, J. J. & Robertson, E.F. (1996), [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Trigonometric_functions.html "Trigonometric functions"], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive]]''.
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| * O'Connor, J. J. & Robertson, E. F. (2000), [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Paramesvara.html "Paramesvara"], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''.
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| * Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (2008), "Maps and Mapmaking in India", ''Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition)'' edited by [[Helaine Selin]], pp. 1301–1303, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
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| * [http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm Srinivasan, S. & Ranganathan, S., ''Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World'', Bangalore: Indian Institute of Science.]
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| * Tripathi, V.N. (2008), "Astrology in India", ''Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition)'' edited by [[Helaine Selin]], pp. 264–267, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
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| * Wenk, Hans-Rudolf etc. (2003), ''Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-52958-1.
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| |
| * Whish, Charles (1835), ''Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland''.
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| ==External links==
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| | |
| *[http://nscdelhi.org/exhibition-gallery.php?gallery=184 Our Science and Technology Heritage] gallery for the [[National Science Centre, Delhi|National Science Centre]] in Delhi
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| * [http://www.iish.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=71:a-brief-introduction-to-technological-brilliance-of-ancient-india&catid=37:heritage-india-news&Itemid=56 A brief introduction to technological brilliance of Ancient India] (Indian Institute of Scientific Heritage)
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| * [http://sanskritdocuments.org/articles/ScienceTechSanskritAncientIndiaMGPrasad.pdf Science and Technology in Ancient India]
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| * [http://countrystudies.us/india/101.htm ''India: Science and technology'', U.S. Library of Congress.]
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| * ''[http://www.insaindia.org/INSA-book.pdf Pursuit and promotion of science: The Indian Experience]'', Indian National Science Academy.
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| * [http://countrystudies.us/india/101.htm ''India: Science and technology'', U.S. Library of Congress.]
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| * [[Indian National Science Academy]] (2001), ''[http://www.insaindia.org/INSA-book.pdf Pursuit and promotion of science: The Indian Experience]'', Indian National Science Academy,
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| *Presenting Indian S&T Heritage in Science Museums, Propagation : a Journal of science communication Vol 1, NO.1, January 2010, National Council of Science Museums, Kolkata, India, by S.M Khened, [http://ncsm.gov.in/science_pdf/Shivaprasad%20Khened.pdf].
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| *Presenting Indian S&T Heritage in Science Museums, Propagation : a Journal of science communication Vol 1, NO.2, July, 2010, pages 124-132, National Council of Science Museums, Kolkata, India, by S.M Khened,[http://ncsm.gov.in/science_pdf/Propagation%20Vol%202%20-%2008%20Science%20Centres.pdf].
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| {{Indianscience}}
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| {{Science and technology in Pakistan}}
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| {{Asia topic|Science and technology in}}
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| {{History of technology}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Indian Science And Technology}}
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| [[Category:History of science and technology in India| ]]
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| [[Category:History of science and technology in Pakistan| ]]
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