Sheila Greibach: Difference between revisions

From formulasearchengine
Jump to navigation Jump to search
← Older editNewer edit →
en>AnomieBOT
m Dating maintenance tags: {{Clarify}}
en>Jochen Burghardt
confirmed cooperation with Michael A. Harrison from publications list and "Seymour Ginsburg" article
Line 1: Line 1:
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; clear:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
| style="background:#0000cc; text-align:center;" |<strong class="center" style="color:white;">Energy development</strong>
|-
|
[[File:Total World Energy Consumption by Source 2010.png|thumb|center|375px|Schematic of the global sources of energy in 2010<br />
<small>''Source'': [[REN21]]: [http://www.map.ren21.net/GSR/GSR2012.pdf Renewables 2012 Global Status Report]</small>
----
'''Total''': {{color box|#663200}} [[Fossil fuel|Fossil]]; {{color box|#569d1b}} [[Renewable power|Renewable]]; {{color box|#ff420e}} [[Nuclear power|Nuclear]]
----
'''Renewables''':
{|style="vertical-align:text-top;"
|{{color box|#7d0020}} [[Biomass heating system|Biomass heat]]; {{color box|#ff420e}} [[Solar hot water|Solar-water]]; {{color box|#b97956}} [[Geothermal heating|Geo-heat]]; {{color box|#83cafe}} [[Hydroelectricity|Hydro]]; {{color box|#23b14f}} [[Ethanol]];
|-
| {{color box|#f31d25}} [[Biodiesel]]; {{color box|#314005}} [[Biomass|Biomass electric]]; {{color box|#01a2e6}} [[Wind power|Wind]]; {{color box|#411f5c}} [[Geothermal electricity|Geo-electric]];
|-
|{{color box|#ff960f}} [[Solar PV]]; {{color box|#c4000a}} [[Concentrated solar power|Solar CSP]]; {{color box|#3f47cc}} [[Ocean power|Oceanic]]
|}
----]]
[[File:World total primary energy production.png|thumb|center|375px|
{|
|-
|{{color box|#ff420e}}
|Total world primary energy production ([[Orders of magnitude (numbers)#1015|quadrillion]] [[Btu]])<br />
<small>''Source'': [http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm?tid=44&pid=44&aid=1 International Energy Statistics] </small>
|}
----
{{color box|#043b7b}} United States;
{{color box|#eed15b}} China;
{{color box|#5a9927}} Europe;
{{color box|#690a22}} Russia;
{{color box|#83cafe}} Africa;<br />
{{color box|#313f0c}} Central and South America
----]]
[[File:LLNLUSEnergy2011.png|thumb|center|380px|
Estimated US Energy Use/Flow in 2011: 97.3 [[:en:Quad (unit)|quads]].
<small>Energy flow charts show the relative size of primary energy resources and end uses in the United States, with fuels compared on a common energy unit basis. (2012-10)<br />(Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. [http://flowcharts.llnl.gov flowcharts]; [http://flowcharts.llnl.gov/content/energy/energy_archive/energy_flow_2011/LLNLUSEnergy2011.png source])</small>
----
{|
|-
|
''Compounds and Radiant Energy'': <br />
{{color box|#ffff00}} Solar;
{{color box|#cc0001}} Nuclear;
{{color box|#0000fe}} Hydro;
{{color box|#901290}} Wind;
{{color box|#905a12}} Geothermal;
{{color box|#3884e6}} Natural Gas;
|-
|
{{color box|#808080}} Coal;
{{color box|#3fc041}} Biomass;
{{color box|#006000}} Petroleum
|}
----
''Producing Electrical Currents'':<br />
{{color box|#ffd37c}} Electricity Generation<br />
''Utilizing Effects Transmitted'':<br />
{{color box|#fecccb}} Residential, Commercial, Industrial, transportation<br />
{{color box|#b9b9b9}} Rejected energy<ref group="note">Also known as [[Heat transfer|heat loss inefficiency]]</ref>
{{color box|#616161}} Energy Services
----
]]
|}
'''Energy development'''<ref>The Federal nonnuclear energy research and development act (Public Law 93-577) section 11, environmental evaluation: report to the President and Congress. By [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]. [[Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology]].</ref><ref>The Social impacts of energy development on national parks: final report By [[United States National Park Service]], University of Denver. Center for Community Change. The National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1984.</ref><ref>Assessment of Energy Resource Development Impact on Water Quality, Volume 1. By [[Susan M. Melancon]], [[Terry S. Michaud]], [[Robert William Thomas]]. [[Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory]], 1979.</ref> is a field of endeavor focused on making available sufficient [[primary energy]] sources<ref>Resources for the twenty-first century: proceedings of the international centennial symposium of the United States Geological Survey, held at Reston, Virginia, October 14–19, 1979 . By [[Frank C. Whitmore]], [[Mary Ellen Williams]], [[U.S. Geological Survey]].</ref> and secondary [[energy forms]] to meet the needs of society.<ref>The Homeowner's Guide to Renewable Energy: Achieving Energy Independence. By [[Dan Chiras]]. New Society Publishers, Jul 5, 2011.</ref><ref>Renewable Energy Sources for Sustainable Development. By Narendra Singh Rathore, N. L. Panwar. New India Publishing, Jan 1, 2007</ref><ref>Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation: Summary for Policymakers and Technical Summary: Special Report of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]. Cambridge University Press, 2011.</ref><ref>Solar Energy and Nonfossil Fuel Research. By United States. [[Cooperative State Research Service]], [[Smithsonian Science Information Exchange]]. The Department, 1981.</ref><ref>Final Report of the Task Force on the Availability of Federally Owned Mineral Lands, Volumes 1-2. By United States. Task Force on the Availability of Federally Owned Mineral Lands.</ref> These endeavors encompass those which provide for the production of [[Conventional energy|conventional]], [[Alternative energy|alternative]] and [[Renewable energy|renewable]] sources of energy, and for the [[Waste heat|recovery and reuse of energy]] that would otherwise be wasted. [[Energy conservation]]<ref group="note">See also: [[Fuel efficiency]] and [[Energy efficiency in transportation]]</ref> and [[Efficient energy use|efficiency measures]]<ref group="note">See also: [[Energy conversion efficiency]]</ref> [[Causality|reduce the impact]] of energy development, and can have benefits to society with [[Value (economics)|changes in economic cost]] and with changes in the [[environmental impact|environmental effects]].


Contemporary [[industrial societies]] use primary and secondary energy sources for [[transportation]] and the production of many [[manufactured good]]s. Also, large industrial populations have [[Electricity generation|various generation]] and delivery services for [[Energy transmission|energy distribution]] and [[end-user]] utilization.<ref group="note">For small-scale generation, see: [[Microgeneration]].</ref> This energy is used by people who can [[Cost of living|afford the cost to live]] under various [[Weather|climatic conditions]] through the use of [[HVAC|heating, ventilation, and/or air conditioning]]. Level of use of external energy sources differs across societies, along with the convenience, levels of [[traffic congestion]], [[Pollution#Sources and causes|pollution sources]]<ref>Hydrocarbon Bioremediation, Volume 2 edited by Robert E. Hinchee</ref> and availability of [[Domestic energy consumption|domestic energy sources]].


Thousands of people in society are employed in the [[energy industry]], of which subjectively influence and impact behaviors. The conventional industry comprises the [[petroleum industry]]<ref group="note">Including [[oil companies]], petroleum refiners, fuel transport and end-user sales at [[gas station]]s</ref>  the gas industry,<ref group="note">Including [[natural gas]] extraction, and [[coal gas]] manufacture, as well as distribution and sales</ref> the [[electrical power industry]]<ref group="note">Including [[electricity generation]], [[electric power distribution]] and sales</ref> the [[coal industry]], and the [[nuclear power industry]]. New energy industries include the [[renewable energy industry]], comprising alternative and sustainable manufacture, distribution, and sale of [[alternative fuel]]s. While there is the development of [[Hydrocarbon exploration|new hydrocarbon sources]],<ref>Exploitation of Hydrocarbon Resources: New Solutions in Energy Supply : Overview 1995-1998. By European Commission, Directorate-General for Energy DG XVII, 1999.</ref> including [[Deepwater drilling|deepwater]]/[[horizontal drilling]] and [[fracking]], are contentiously underway, commitments to [[mitigation of climate change|mitigate climate change]] are driving efforts to develop sources of alternative and [[renewable energy]].
next step to this fact game''s success is which often it produces the impression that it''s a multi player game. I think it''s a fantasy because you don''t do all that's necessary directly with the next player. You don''t fight and explore immediately like you would on the inside Wow, of play onto another player even during with a turn-by-turn cosmetic foundation comparable to Chess. Any time you raid another player''s village, that player is offline and moreover you could at the same time just become raiding a random computer-generated village.<br><br>Once as a parent you are always concerned with movie on the internet game content, control what online mods are put globe sport. These online mods are usually caused by players, perhaps not the gaming businesses, therefore there's no ranking system. Using thought was a relatively un-risky game can an earth-friendly a lot worse using any of these mods.<br><br>In case you beloved this post and also you would want to receive more details about [http://circuspartypanama.com how to hack clash of clans with cydia] i implore you to pay a visit to the web site. Okazaki, japan tartan draws creativity through your country's affinity for cherry blossom and encompasses pink, white, green and brown lightly colours. clash of clans cheats. Style is called Sakura, japan for cherry blossom.<br><br>If you feel like users targeted your enemy stain on in a present shooter and still missed, check what weapon you seem to be using. Just like in real life, unusual weapons have different plus points and weaknesses. How the weapon you are using may not have the entire short distance required aka the weapon recoil must be actually putting you to some extent off target.<br><br>Actual not only provides end tools, there is potentially Clash of Clans identify no survey by anyone. Strict anti ban system make users to utilize the program and play without nearly any hindrance. If manufacturers are interested in finding the right program, they are basically , required to visit amazing site and obtain the hack tool trainer now. The name of the internet page is Amazing Cheats. A number of websites have different types for software by which most people can get past tough stages in the task.<br><br>This construction is what means that you can be a part of the right clan, however it additionally houses reinforcement troops. Click a button to allow them to ask your clan to assist you send you some troops, and they are continuing to be out usually there to make use off in assaults, or if you want to defend your base when it comes to you while you're found on your weekly LARPing organization. Upgrading this building up permits extra troops that will help be stored for defenders. You may be required 20 available slots so that you get a dragon. This is a very good base for players seeking to shield trophies in addition to never worried about extracts. Players will come up with it hard to mop out your city lounge. Most will [http://Www.Dailymail.Co.uk/home/search.html?sel=site&searchPhrase=eliminate eliminate] for the easy win and take out your own personal assets.<br><br>Let's take a try interpreting the proper abstracts differently. Prepare for of it in permission of bulk with pebbles to skip 1 extra. Skipping added schedule expenses added money, and you get a massive deal. Think akin to it as a variety accretion discounts.
 
{{further|Outline of energy development}}
 
==Types of energy==
{{further|World energy resources and consumption}}
{{see also|Energy and society|Energy planning|Energy policy}}
[[File:Basic Open System Model.gif|thumb|right|Open System Model (basics)]]
Colloquially, and in non-scientific literature, the terms power,<ref group="note">Such as the physical jargon of "[[Power (physics)|power]]", can be seen in the following:
*[[Electric power]] transfer rate at which electrical energy is by a circuit
*[[Human power]] performed by a human
*[[Motive power]] to create motion
*[[AC power|Power in an alternating current electric]] circuit
*[[Transmitter power output|Transmitter output]] power
*[[Effective radiated power]] measurement
*[[Power spectral density]] signal</ref> [[fuels]], and [[energy]] can be used as [[synonyms]], but in the field of [[energy technology]] they possess different distinct meanings that are associated with them. An energy source is usually in the form of a [[closed system]], the element that provides the energy by conversion from another energy form; However, the energy can be [[Quantity|quantitative]], the [[Model audit|balance sheet]] is capable of containing [[Open system (systems theory)|open system]] energy transfers.<ref group="note">See: [[Open system (thermodynamics)|thermodynamics open system]]</ref> Illustrative of this can be the emanations from the sun, which with its [[nuclear fusion]] is the ''most important'' energy source for the Earth<ref group="note">Providing the [[day]] and the [[Circumstellar habitable zone|habitable zone]] the Earth is in.</ref> and which provides its energy in the form of [[radiation]].
 
The [[Nature|natural elements]]<ref group="note">See also: [[Matter]] and [[Energy]]</ref> of the material world exist in forms that can be converted into usable energy and are [[resources]] which society can obtained energy to produce [[heat]], [[light]], and [[Motion (physics)|motion]] (among the many uses). According to their nature, the power plants can be classified into:
* ''Primary'' : They are found in nature: ''[[wind]]'', ''[[water]]'', ''[[solar energy|solar]]'',<ref group="note">Or those pertaining to [[Cosmos#Forces of the cosmos|the cosmos]].</ref> ''[[wood]]'', ''[[coal]]'', ''[[oil]]'', ''[[Nuclear reactor technology|nuclear]]''.
* ''Secondary'' : Are those obtained from primary energy sources: ''[[electricity]]'', ''[[gas]]''.
Classified according to the [[energy reserve]]s of the [[Power plant|energy source]] used and the [[Regenerative design|regeneration capacity]] with:
* ''renewable'': When the energy source used is freely regenerated in a short period and there are practically limitless reserves; An example is the solar energy that is the source of energy from the ''[[sun]]'', or the ''wind''<ref group="note">See also: [[wind velocity|velocity of wind]]</ref> used as an energy resource. Renewable energies are:
** original ''solar''
** natural ''wind'' (atmospheric flows)
** natural ''[[geothermal]]''
** oceanic ''[[tidal]]''
** natural ''[[waterfall]]'' (hydraulic flows)
** natural ''[[plant]]'': [[paper]], [[wood]]
** natural ''[[animal]]'': [[wax]], grease,<ref group="note">[[petroleum product]]s ([[fat]]s), [[Hydrogenated vegetable oil]] ([[vegetable shortening]]), [[Brown grease]], and [[Yellow grease]]</ref> [[pack animal]]s and sources of [[mechanical energy]]<ref group="note">[[human]], [[donkey]], [[mule]], [[elephant]].</ref>
* ''nonrenewable'': They are coming from energy limited sources on Earth in quantity and, therefore, are exhaustible. The non-renewable energy sources include, non-exclusively:
**''[[fossil]]'' source: [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], coal
** original ''[[mineral]]/[[chemical]]'': [[uranium]], [[shale gas]]<ref group="note">from [[shale]] [[slate]]</ref>
So, for example, shale gas is secondary non-renewable. Wind is a primary renewable.
 
The principle stated by [[Antoine Lavoisier]] on the [[conservation of matter]] applies to energy development:<ref group="note">Or, moreover, the [[Mass-energy equivalence|mass and energy coupling]], as [[Albert Einstein]] states in the equivalence between these two concepts in his formula, [[Energy|<math>E =</math>]] [[mass|<sub><math>m</math></sub>]][[velocity of light|<math>\cdot c^{2}</math>]].</ref> "nothing is created." Thus any energy "production" is actually a recovery transformation of the forms of energy whose origin is that of the universe.
 
For example, a [[bicycle dynamo]] turns in part from the [[kinetic energy]] (speed energy) of the movement of the cyclist and converting it into electrical energy will transfer in particular to its lights producing light, that is to say light energy, via the heating of the filament of the bulb and therefore heat ([[thermal energy]]). But the kinetic energy of the rider is itself biochemical energy (the [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP muscle cell]]s) derived from the [[chemical energy]] of sugars synthesized by plants who use light energy from the sun, which runs from the nuclear energy produced by fusion of atoms of hydrogen, the material itself constitute a form of energy, called "mass energy".
 
==Fossil fuels==
[[File:Moss Landing Power Plant p1270026.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Moss Landing Power Plant]] burns [[natural gas]] to produce electricity in [[California]].]]
[[File:BarnettShaleDrilling-9323.jpg|thumb|upright|Natural gas [[horizontal drilling|drilling]] [[drilling rig|rig]] in Texas.]]
{{Main|Fossil fuel|Peak oil}}
 
Fossil fuel (''primary non-renewable fossil'') sources burn [[coal]] or [[hydrocarbon]] fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]]. Another fossil fuel, [[liquefied petroleum gas]] (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles, [[industrial process]]es, or [[electrical power generation]].
 
Fossil energy is from recovered fossils (like [[brown coal]], [[hard coal]], [[peat]], [[natural gas]] and [[crude oil]]) and are originated in degradated products of dead plants and animals. These fossil fuels are based on the [[carbon cycle]] and thus allow stored (historic solar) energy to be recycled today. In 2005, 81% were of the world's energy needs met from fossil sources.<ref>International Energy Agency: Key World Energy Statistics 2007. S. 6</ref> [[#Agricultural biomass|Biomass]] is also derived from wood and other organic wastes and modern remains. The technical development of fossil fuels in the 18th and 19th Century set the stage for the [[Industrial Revolution]].
 
Fossil fuels make up the bulk of the world's current [[primary energy]] sources. The [[technology]] and [[infrastructure]] already exist for the use of fossil fuels. [[Petroleum]] [[energy density]] in terms of volume (cubic space) and mass (weight) ranks currently above that of  [[alternative energy]] sources (or [[energy storage]] devices, like a [[battery (electricity)|battery]]). Fossil fuels are currently economical, and suitable for decentralized energy use.
 
Dependence on fossil fuels from regions or countries creates [[energy security]] risks for dependent countries.<ref>Energy Security and Climate Policy: Assessing Interactions. [http://books.google.com/books?id=VtCs6of8F-UC&pg=PA125 p125]</ref><ref>Energy Security: Economics, Politics, Strategies, and Implications. Edited by Carlos Pascual, Jonathan Elkind. p210</ref><ref>Geothermal Energy Resources for Developing Countries. By D. Chandrasekharam, J. Bundschuh. [http://books.google.com/books?id=Ne846IokXB4C&pg=PA91 p91]</ref><ref>Congressional Record, V. 153, PT. 2, January 18, 2007 to February 1, 2007 edited by U S Congress, Congress (U.S.). p [http://books.google.com/books?id=DaFQ_F0bdnYC&pg=PA1618 1618]</ref><ref>India s Energy Security. Edited by Ligia Noronha, Anant Sudarshan.</ref> Oil dependence in particular has led to war,<ref>National security, safety, technology, and employment implications of increasing CAFE standards : hearing before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Seventh Congress, second session, January 24, 2002. DIANE Publishing. p10</ref> funding of radicals,<ref>[http://americansecurityproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/Ending-our-Dependence-on-Oil.pdf Ending our-Dependence on Oil] - American Security Project. americansecurityproject.org</ref> monopolization,<ref>Energy Dependency, Politics and Corruption in the Former Soviet Union. By Margarita M. Balmaceda. Psychology Press, Dec 6, 2007.</ref> and socio-political instability.<ref>[https://politicalscience.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/documents/KarlEoE.pdf Oil-Led Development]: Social, Political, and Economic Consequences. Terry Lynn Karl. Stanford University. Stanford, California, United States.</ref> Fossil fuels are non-[[renewable energy|renewable]], un-[[sustainable]] resources, which will eventually [[Peak oil|decline in production]]<ref>Peaking of World Oil Production: Impacts, Mitigation, and Risk Management. Was at: www.pppl.gov/polImage.cfm?doc_Id=44&size_code=Doc</ref> and become exhausted, with consequences to societies that remain dependent on them. Fossil fuels are actually slowly forming continuously, but are [[World energy consumption|being consumed]] quicker than are formed.<ref group="note">See: [[Oil reserves]], [[Petroleum#Formation|Petroleum formation]], and [[Pyrolysis]].</ref> Extracting fuels becomes increasingly extreme as society consumes the most accessible fuel deposits. Extraction in fuel [[Mining|mine]]s get intensive and [[Oil platform|oil rig]]s drill deeper (going further out to sea).<ref>{{cite web  | url= http://www.rigzone.com/analysis/rigs/insight.asp?i_id=213 | title= Big Rig Building Boom |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= | date= 2006-04-13 |work= | publisher= Rigzone.com |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071021000239/http://rigzone.com/analysis/rigs/insight.asp?i_id=213 <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2007-10-21 |quote= | accessdate= 2008-01-18 }}</ref> Extraction of fossil fuels results in [[environmental degradation]], such as the [[strip mining]] and [[mountaintop removal]] of coal.
 
[[Fuel efficiency]] is a form of [[thermal efficiency]], meaning the efficiency of a process that converts chemical potential energy contained in a carrier [[fuel]] into [[kinetic energy]] or [[Mechanical work|work]]. The [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]] is the energy efficiency of a particular vehicle, is given as a [[ratio]] of distance travelled per unit of [[Motor fuel|fuel]] consumed. Weight-specific efficiency (efficiency per unit weight) may be stated for [[freight]], and passenger-specific efficiency (vehicle efficiency per passenger). The inefficient atmospheric [[combustion]] (burning) of fossil fuels in vehicles, buildings, and power plants contributes to [[urban heat island]]s.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/  | title= Heat Island Group Home Page |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= | date= 2000-08-30 |work= | publisher= [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]  |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= | accessdate= 2008-01-19 }}</ref>
 
Conventional production of oil has peaked, conservatively, between 2007 to 2010.<ref group="note">More liberally, oil has or will peak between 2010 to 2025. One out of several estimations state that there will be no peak. The timing of worldwide [[peak oil]] production is being actively debated, but may have already happened in countries. For more, see: Congressional Record, Volume 151-Part 19: November 8, 2005 to November 16, 2005 (Pages 25297 to 26552). Government Printing Office, 2010. [http://books.google.com/books?id=ocTpiI5p7fAC&pg=PA682 p26524]-26525.</ref> In 2010, it was estimated that an investment in non-renewable resources of $8 trillion would be required to maintain current levels of production for 25 years.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2010/11/101109-peak-oil-iea-world-energy-outlook/ Has the World Already Passed “Peak Oil”?]</ref> In 2010, governments subsidized [[fossil fuel]]s by an estimated $500 billion a year.<ref name="sciencedaily1">''ScienceDaily.com'' (Apr. 22, 2010) [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/04/100421133110.htm "Fossil-Fuel Subsidies Hurting Global Environment, Security, Study Finds"]</ref>  Fossil fuels are also a source of [[greenhouse gas]] emissions, leading to concerns about [[global warming]] if consumption is not reduced.
 
The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the release of [[pollution]] into the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. The fossil fuels are mainly based on organic carbon compounds. They are according to the [[IPCC]] the causes of the [[global warming]].<ref>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007): IPCC Fourth Assessment Report - Working Group I Report on "The Physical Science Basis".</ref> During the [[combustion]] with oxygen in the form of heat energy, [[carbon dioxide]] released. Depending on the composition and purity of the fossil fuel also results in other chemical compounds such as [[nitrogen oxides]] and [[soot]] and [[fine dust]] alternativey. [[Greenhouse gas]] emissions result from [[fossil fuel]]-based electricity generation. Typical megawatt coal plant produces billions of [[kilowatt hour]]s [[Annually|per year]].<ref>[http://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=104&t=3 How much electricity does a typical nuclear power plant generate]? - FAQ - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)</ref><ref group="note">About 10 million kilowatt hours per day; Roughly, 420000 kilowatt hours per hour.</ref> From this generation, the [[carbon dioxide]], [[sulfur dioxide]], small [[Particulates|airborne particles]], [[nitrogen oxides]] (NOx) ([[ozone]] ([[smog]])), [[carbon monoxide]] (CO), [[hydrocarbons]], [[volatile organic compounds]] (VOC), [[Mercury (element)|mercury]], [[arsenic]], [[lead]], [[cadmium]], other [[heavy metals]], and [[uranium]] traces are produced.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/coalvswind/c02c.html | title= Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution | date= 08/18/05 |work= | publisher= [[Union of Concerned Scientists]] | accessdate= 2008-01-18 }}</ref><ref>NRDC: [http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/files/coalmining.pdf There Is No Such Thing as "Clean Coal"]</ref>
 
==Nuclear==
 
===Fission===
[[File:Susquehanna steam electric station.jpg|thumb|The [[Susquehanna Steam Electric Station]], a [[boiling water reactor]]. The reactors are located inside the rectangular [[containment building]]s towards the front of the [[cooling tower]]s. The power station produces 63 million [[Kilowatt hour|units of electricity]] per day.]]
[[File:TaskForce One.jpg|thumb|American nuclear powered ships,(top to bottom) cruisers [[USS Bainbridge (CGN-25)|USS ''Bainbridge'']], the [[USS Long Beach (CGN-9)|USS ''Long Beach'']] and the ''[[USS Enterprise (CVN-65)|USS Enterprise]]'', the [[List of longest naval ships|longest ever naval vessel]], and the first nuclear-powered [[aircraft carrier]]. Picture taken in 1964 during a record setting voyage of 26,540 nmi (49,190 km) around the world in 65 days without refueling. Crew members are spelling out [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[mass-energy equivalence]] formula ''E&nbsp;=&nbsp;mc<sup>2</sup>'' on the flight deck.]]
[[File:NSF picture of Yamal.jpg|thumb|The Russian [[nuclear-powered icebreaker]] [[Yamal (icebreaker)|NS Yamal]] on a joint scientific expedition with the [[National Science Foundation|NSF]] in 1994.]]
 
{{Main|Nuclear power}}
<!--Definition, Use and development -->
Nuclear power, or nuclear [[energy]], is the use of [[Nuclear binding energy|exothermic nuclear processes]],<ref name=nuclearEnergy-tx>{{cite web
  | title =Nuclear Energy
  | work =Energy Education is an interactive curriculum supplement for secondary-school science students, funded by the U. S. Department of Energy and the Texas State Energy Conservation Office (SECO)
  | publisher =[[U. S. Department of Energy]] and the Texas State Energy Conservation Office (SECO)
  | date =July 2010
  | url =http://www.energyeducation.tx.gov/energy/section_1/topics/forms_of_energy/nuclear_energy.html
  | accessdate =2010-07-10}}</ref> to generate useful [[heat]] and [[electricity]]. The term includes [[nuclear fission]], [[nuclear decay]] and [[nuclear fusion]]. Presently the [[nuclear fission]] of elements in the [[actinide#Applications|actinide]] series of the [[periodic table]] produce the vast majority of nuclear energy in the direct service of humankind, with [[nuclear decay]] processes, primarily in the form of [[geothermal energy]], and [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]]s, in niche uses making up the rest. [[Nuclear power plant|Nuclear (fission) power stations]], excluding the contribution from [[Nuclear marine propulsion|naval nuclear fission reactors]], provided about 5.7% of the world's [[energy]] and 13% of the world's electricity in 2012.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| url=https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/kwes.pdf
| title=Key World Energy Statistics 2012
| accessdate=2012-12-17
| publisher= [[International Energy Agency]]
| year=2012
| format=PDF
| ref=harv}}
</ref> In 2013, the [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]] report that there are 437&nbsp;operational nuclear power reactors,<ref name="iaea.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.iaea.org/pris/ |title=PRIS - Home |publisher=Iaea.org |date= |accessdate=2013-06-14}}</ref> in [[nuclear power by country|31&nbsp;countries]],<ref name="UIC">{{cite web  | url= http://www.uic.com.au/reactors.htm  | title= World Nuclear Power Reactors 2007-08 and Uranium Requirements | publisher= World Nuclear Association | date= 2008-06-09  | accessdate=2008-06-21 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080303234143/http://www.uic.com.au/reactors.htm |archivedate = March 3, 2008}}</ref>  although not every reactor is producing electricity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2012/06/17/2003535527 |title=Japan approves two reactor restarts |publisher=Taipei Times |date=2013-06-07 |accessdate=2013-06-14}}</ref> In addition, there are approximately 140 naval vessels using [[nuclear propulsion]] in operation, powered by some 180 reactors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.engineersgarage.com/articles/nuclear-power-plants?page=2 |title=What is Nuclear Power Plant - How Nuclear Power Plants work &#124; What is Nuclear Power Reactor - Types of Nuclear Power Reactors |publisher=EngineersGarage |date= |accessdate=2013-06-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Non-Power-Nuclear-Applications/Transport/Nuclear-Powered-Ships/#.UV5yQsrpyJM |title=Nuclear-Powered Ships &#124; Nuclear Submarines |publisher=World-nuclear.org |date= |accessdate=2013-06-14}}</ref><ref>http://www.ewp.rpi.edu/hartford/~ernesto/F2010/EP2/Materials4Students/Misiaszek/NuclearMarinePropulsion.pdf Naval Nuclear Propulsion, Magdi Ragheb.
''As of 2001, about 235 naval reactors had been built''</ref> As of 2013, attaining a [[Joint European Torus|net energy gain]] from sustained [[nuclear fusion]] reactions, excluding natural fusion power sources such as the [[Sun]], remains an ongoing area of international [[International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor|physics]] and [[International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility|engineering research]]. More than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial fusion power production remains unlikely before 2050.<ref name="ITERorg">{{cite web |work=The ITER Project |title=Beyond ITER |publisher=Information Services, Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory |url=http://www.iter.org/Future-beyond.htm |accessdate=5 February 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061107220145/http://www.iter.org/Future-beyond.htm |archivedate=7 November 2006 }} - Projected fusion power timeline</ref>
 
<!-- Debate -->
There is an ongoing [[Nuclear power debate|debate about nuclear power]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/2011/mar/27/nuclear-controversy/ |title=The nuclear controversy |author=Union-Tribune Editorial Board  |date=March 27, 2011 |work=Union-Tribune  }}</ref><ref name="jstor.org">James J. MacKenzie. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2823429 Review of The Nuclear Power Controversy] by [[Arthur W. Murphy]] ''The Quarterly Review of Biology'', Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1977), pp. 467-468.</ref><ref name="A Reasonable Bet on Nuclear Power">In February 2010 the nuclear power debate played out on the pages of the ''[[New York Times]]'', see [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/18/opinion/18thur2.html?scp=1&sq=a%20reasonable%20bet%20on%20nuclear%20power&st=cse A Reasonable Bet on Nuclear Power] and [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/20/opinion/l20nuclear.html Revisiting Nuclear Power: A Debate] and [http://roomfordebate.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/02/16/a-comeback-for-nuclear-power/ A Comeback for Nuclear Power?]</ref>  Proponents, such as the [[World Nuclear Association]], the [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]] and [[Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy]] contend that nuclear power is a safe, [[sustainable energy|sustainable]] energy source that reduces [[carbon emissions]].<ref name="bloomberg.com">[http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&sid=aXb5iuqdZoD4&refer=us U.S. Energy Legislation May Be 'Renaissance' for Nuclear Power].</ref> [[Anti-nuclear movement|Opponents]], such as [[Greenpeace International]] and [[Nuclear Information and Resource Service|NIRS]], contend that nuclear power poses many threats to [[Environmental radioactivity|people and the environment]].<ref name="Share">{{cite web|author=Share |url=http://www.projectcensored.org/top-stories/articles/4-nuclear-waste-pools-in-north-carolina/ |title=Nuclear Waste Pools in North Carolina |publisher=Projectcensored.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-24}}</ref><ref name="NC WARN » Nuclear Power">{{cite web|url=http://www.ncwarn.org/?cat=18 |title=Nuclear Power |publisher=Nc Warn |date= |accessdate=2013-06-22}}</ref><ref name="Sturgis">{{cite web|last=Sturgis |first=Sue |url=http://www.southernstudies.org/2009/04/post-4.html |title=Investigation: Revelations about Three Mile Island disaster raise doubts over nuclear plant safety |publisher=Southernstudies.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-24}}</ref>
 
<!-- Accidents, safety and greenhouse gases emissions -->
[[Nuclear and radiation accidents|Nuclear power plant accidents]] include the [[Chernobyl disaster]] (1986), [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster]] (2011), and the [[Three Mile Island accident]] (1979).<ref name=timenuke/> There have also been some nuclear submarine accidents.<ref name=timenuke>{{cite web|author=iPad iPhone Android TIME TV Populist The Page |url=http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1887705,00.html |title=The Worst Nuclear Disasters |publisher=Time.com |date=2009-03-25 |accessdate=2013-06-22}}</ref><ref name=rad>[http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull413/article1.pdf Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources] p. 14.</ref><ref name=johnston2007>{{cite web |url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/radevents1.html|title=Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties |author=Johnston, Robert |date=September 23, 2007 |publisher=Database of Radiological Incidents and Related Events }}</ref> In terms of lives lost per unit of energy generated, analysis has determined that nuclear power has caused less fatalities per unit of energy generated than the other major sources of energy generation. Energy production from [[coal]], [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]] and [[hydropower]] has caused a greater number of fatalities per unit of energy generated due to [[air pollution]] and [[Energy accidents|energy accident]] effects.<ref name="autogenerated2007">{{cite pmid|17876910}}</ref><ref name="without the hot air">{{cite web |url= http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/withouthotair/c24/page_168.shtml |title=Dr. MacKay ''Sustainable Energy without the hot air'' |page= 168 |work= Data from studies by the [[Paul Scherrer Institute]] including non EU data |accessdate=15 September 2012}}</ref><ref>http://www.forbes.com/sites/jamesconca/2012/06/10/energys-deathprint-a-price-always-paid/ with Chernobyl's total predicted [[linear no-threshold]] cancer deaths included, nuclear power is safer when compared to many alternative energy sources' immediate, death rate.</ref><ref name="theage2006">{{cite web
| url= http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/nuclear-power-cheaper-safer-than-coal-and-gas/2006/06/04/1149359609052.html
| title= Nuclear power 'cheaper, safer' than coal and gas
|author= Brendan Nicholson
|date= 2006-06-05 |work= |publisher= [[The Age]]
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }}</ref><ref name="tandfonline1">http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10807030802387556 ''Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal
Volume 14, Issue 5, 2008 - A comparative analysis of accident risks in fossil, hydro, and nuclear energy chains.''
If you cannot access the paper via the above link, the following link is open to the public, credit to the authors.
http://gabe.web.psi.ch/pdfs/_2012_LEA_Audit/TA01.pdf
Page 962 to 965. Comparing Nuclear's ''latent'' cancer deaths, such as cancer with other energy sources ''immediate'' deaths per unit of energy generated(GWeyr). This study does not include Fossil fuel related cancer and other indirect deaths created by the use of fossil fuel consumption in its "severe accident", an accident with more than 5 fatalities, classification.</ref> However, the economic costs of nuclear power accidents is high, and meltdowns can take decades to clean up. The human costs of evacuations of affected populations and lost livelihoods is also significant.<ref name="Richard Schiffman">{{cite web |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2013/mar/12/fukushima-nuclear-accident-lessons-for-us |title=Two years on, America hasn't learned lessons of Fukushima nuclear disaster |author=Richard Schiffman |date=12 March 2013  |work=The Guardian }}</ref><ref name="Martin Fackler">{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/02/world/asia/02japan.html?_r=1&ref=world |title=Report Finds Japan Underestimated Tsunami Danger |author=Martin Fackler |date=June 1, 2011 |work=New York Times }}</ref>
 
Along with other sustainable energy sources, nuclear power is a [[low carbon power generation]] method of producing electricity, with an analysis of the literature on its [[Life cycle assessment|total life cycle]] [[emission intensity]] finding that it is similar to other renewable sources in a comparison of [[greenhouse gas]](GHG) emissions per unit of energy generated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sustain_lca_nuclear.html |title=Collectively, life cycle assessment literature shows that nuclear power is similar to other renewable and much lower than fossil fuel in total life cycle GHG emissions.'&#39; |publisher=Nrel.gov |date=2013-01-24 |accessdate=2013-06-22}}</ref> With this translating into, from the beginning of [[nuclear power station]] commercialization in the 1970s, having prevented the emission of approximately 64 [[gigaton]]nes of [[carbon dioxide equivalent]](GtCO2-eq) [[greenhouse gases]], gases that would have otherwise resulted from the burning of [[fossil fuel]]s in [[thermal power station]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Prevented Mortality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Historical and Projected Nuclear Power - global nuclear power has prevented an average of 1.84 million air pollution-related deaths and 64 gigatonnes of CO2-equivalent (GtCO2-eq) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that would have resulted from fossil fuel burning |publisher=Pubs.acs.org |date= |doi=10.1021/es3051197?source=cen |ref=harv}}</ref>
 
<!-- Future of the industry -->
As of 2012, according to the [[IAEA]], worldwide there were 68 civil nuclear power reactors under construction in 15 countries,<ref name="iaea.org"/> approximately 28 of which in the [[Peoples Republic of China]] (PRC), with the most recent nuclear power reactor, as of May 2013, to be connected to the [[electrical grid]], occurring on February 17, 2013 in [[Hongyanhe Nuclear Power Plant]] in the PRC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldnuclearreport.org/Worldwide-First-Reactor-to-Start.html |title=Worldwide First Reactor to Start Up in 2013, in China - World Nuclear Industry Status Report |publisher=Worldnuclearreport.org |date= |accessdate=2013-06-14}}</ref> In the [[USA]], two new [[Generation III reactor]]s are under construction at [[Vogtle]]. U.S. nuclear industry officials expect five new reactors to enter service by 2020, all at existing plants.<ref name=us12>{{cite web |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/09/us-usa-nuclear-nrc-idUSTRE8182J720120209 |title=U.S. approves first new nuclear plant in a generation |author=Ayesha Rascoe | date=Feb 9, 2012  |work=Reuters }}</ref> In 2013, four aging, uncompetitive, reactors were permanently closed.<ref name="Mark Cooper">{{cite web |url=http://www.thebulletin.org/nuclear-aging-not-so-graceful |title=Nuclear aging: Not so graceful |author=Mark Cooper |date=18 June 2013 |work=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists }}</ref><ref name=mw11111>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/15/business/energy-environment/aging-nuclear-plants-are-closing-but-for-economic-reasons.html?ref=matthewlwald |title=Nuclear Plants, Old and Uncompetitive, Are Closing Earlier Than Expected  |author=Matthew Wald |date=June 14, 2013 |work=New York Times }}</ref>
 
Japan's 2011 [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident]], which occurred in a reactor design from the [[Generation II reactor|1960]]s, prompted a rethink of [[nuclear safety]] and [[nuclear energy policy]] in many countries.<ref name=sciamer2011/> Germany decided to close all its reactors by 2022, and Italy has banned nuclear power.<ref name=sciamer2011>{{cite web |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=iaea-head-sees-wide-support |title=IAEA Head Sees Wide Support for Stricter Nuclear Plant Safety |author=Sylvia Westall and Fredrik Dahl |date=June 24, 2011 |work=Scientific American }}</ref> Following Fukushima, in 2011 the [[International Energy Agency]] halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity to be built by 2035.<ref name=economist-20110428>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/18621367?story_id=18621367 |title=Gauging the pressure |date=28 April 2011 |publisher=The Economist }}</ref><ref name=late>{{cite web |url=http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/late-lessons-2 |title=Late lessons from early warnings: science, precaution, innovation: Full Report |author=European Environment Agency |date=Jan 23, 2013 |page=476 }}</ref>
 
===Fission economics===
{{Main|Economics of new nuclear power plants}}
The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject, since there are diverging views on this topic, and multi-billion dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy source. [[Nuclear power plant]]s typically have high capital costs for building the plant, but low direct fuel costs.
 
In recent years there has been a slowdown of electricity demand growth and financing has become more difficult, which has an impact on large projects such as nuclear reactors, with very large upfront costs and long project cycles which carry a large variety of risks.<ref name=kidd2011/> In Eastern Europe, a number of long-established projects are struggling to find finance, notably Belene in Bulgaria and the additional reactors at Cernavoda in Romania, and some potential backers have pulled out.<ref name=kidd2011>{{cite web |url=http://www.neimagazine.com/story.asp?sectioncode=147&storyCode=2058653  |title=New reactors—more or less? |author=Kidd, Steve |date=January 21, 2011 |work=Nuclear Engineering International }}</ref> Where cheap gas is available and its future supply relatively secure, this also poses a major problem for nuclear projects.<ref name=kidd2011/>
 
Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must take into account who bears the risks of future uncertainties. To date all operating nuclear power plants were developed by [[Nationalized|state-owned]] or [[Regulated market|regulated]] [[Electric utility|utility monopolies]]<ref name=ft-20100912>{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ad15fcfe-bc71-11df-a42b-00144feab49a.html |title=Nuclear: New dawn now seems limited to the east |author=Ed Crooks |publisher=Financial Times |date=12 September 2010 |accessdate=12 September 2010}}</ref><ref name=NERA-20120316>{{cite web |url=http://elliott.gwu.edu/assets/docs/events/kee-0312.pdf |title=Future of Nuclear Energy |author=Edward Kee |publisher=NERA Economic Consulting |date=16 March 2012 |accessdate=2 October 2013}}</ref> where many of the risks associated with construction costs, operating performance, fuel price, and other factors were borne by consumers rather than suppliers. Many countries have now liberalized the [[electricity market]] where these risks, and the risk of cheaper competitors emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by plant suppliers and operators rather than consumers, which leads to a significantly different evaluation of the economics of new nuclear power plants.<ref name=MIT-2003>{{Cite book |url=http://web.mit.edu/nuclearpower/ |title=The Future of Nuclear Power |publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |year=2003 |isbn=0-615-12420-8 |accessdate=2006-11-10 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref>
 
Two of the four [[European Pressurized Reactor|EPR]]s under construction (in [[Finland]] and [[France]]) are significantly behind schedule and substantially over cost.<ref name="Patel">{{cite news
| url= http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-11-24/china-builds-french-designed-nuclear-reactor-for-40-less-areva-ceo-says.html
| title= China Builds Nuclear Reactor for 40% Less Than Cost in France, Areva Says
| first= Tara | last= Patel | coauthors= Francois de&nbsp;Beaupuy
|date= 24 November 2010 |publisher= [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]]
| accessdate= 2011-03-08 }}</ref> Following the 2011 [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster]], costs are likely to go up for currently operating and new nuclear power plants, due to increased requirements for on-site spent fuel management and elevated design basis threats.<ref name="Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2011 xv">{{cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/mitei/research/studies/documents/nuclear-fuel-cycle/The_Nuclear_Fuel_Cycle-all.pdf |title=The Future of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle |author=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |year=2011 |work= |page=xv }}</ref>
 
===Nuclear power debate===
{{Main|Nuclear power debate}}
[[File:Fukushima I by Digital Globe crop.jpg|thumb|300px| The 2011 [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster]], the worst [[nuclear incident]] in 25 years, displaced 50,000 households after [[radioactivity|radioactive material]] leaked into the air, soil and sea.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-06-26/fukushima-retiree-to-lead-anti-nuclear-motion.html |title=Fukushima Retiree Leads Anti-Nuclear Shareholders at Tepco Annual Meeting |author=Tomoko Yamazaki and Shunichi Ozasa  |date=27 June 2011 |work=Bloomberg }}</ref> Radiation checks led to bans on some shipments of vegetables and fish.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/07/us-japan-nuclear-idUSTRE74610J20110507 |title=Japan anti-nuclear protesters rally after PM call to close plant  |author=Mari Saito  |date=7 May 2011  |agency=Reuters }}</ref> ]]
 
The nuclear power debate is about the controversy<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/26/opinion/sunday/sunday-dialogue-nuclear-energy-pro-and-con.html?_r=1 |title=Sunday Dialogue: Nuclear Energy, Pro and Con |author= |date=February 25, 2012  |work=New York Times }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/410301 |last=MacKenzie |first=James J. |title=''The Nuclear Power Controversy'' by Arthur W. Murphy |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=467–8 |date=December 1977 |jstor=2823429}}</ref><ref name=eleven>{{cite book |author=Walker, J. Samuel |title=Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tf0AfoynG-EC |date=10 January 2006 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520246836 |pages=10–11}}</ref><ref>In February 2010 the nuclear power debate played out on the pages of the ''[[New York Times]]'', see [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/18/opinion/18thur2.html?scp=1&sq=a%20reasonable%20bet%20on%20nuclear%20power&st=cse A Reasonable Bet on Nuclear Power] and [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/20/opinion/l20nuclear.html Revisiting Nuclear Power: A Debate] and [http://roomfordebate.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/02/16/a-comeback-for-nuclear-power/ A Comeback for Nuclear Power?]</ref><ref>In July 2010 the nuclear power debate again played out on the pages of the ''[[New York Times]]'', see [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/20/opinion/20herbert.html We’re Not Ready]
[http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/29/opinion/l29herbert.html Nuclear Energy: The Safety Issues]</ref> which has surrounded the deployment and use of [[nuclear reactor|nuclear fission reactors]] to generate [[electricity]] from [[nuclear fuel]] for civilian purposes.  The debate about nuclear power peaked during the 1970s and 1980s, when it "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies", in some countries.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S000712340000380X |title=Political Opportunity Structures and Political Protest: Anti-Nuclear Movements in Four Democracies |year=2009 |last1=Kitschelt |first1=Herbert P. |journal=British Journal of Political Science |volume=16 |pages=57}}</ref><ref>[[Jim Falk]] (1982). ''Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power'', Oxford University Press, pages 323-340.</ref>
 
Proponents of nuclear energy argue that nuclear power is a [[sustainable energy]] source which reduces [[carbon emissions]] and can increase [[energy security]] if its use supplants a dependence on imported fuels.<ref>[http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&sid=aXb5iuqdZoD4&refer=us U.S. Energy Legislation May Be `Renaissance' for Nuclear Power].</ref> Proponents advance the notion that nuclear power produces virtually no air pollution, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Proponents also believe that nuclear power is the only viable course to achieve energy independence for most Western countries. They emphasize that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~blc/book/BOOK.html
| title= The Nuclear Energy Option
|author= Bernard Cohen
| accessdate= 2009-12-09 }}</ref>
 
Opponents say that nuclear power poses numerous threats to people and the environment and point to studies in the literature that question if it will ever be a [[sustainable]] energy source.<ref>J. M. Pearce, “[http://www.academia.edu/1628854/Limitations_of_Nuclear_Power_as_a_Sustainable_Energy_Source Limitations of Nuclear Power as a Sustainable Energy Source], ''Sustainability''  '''4'''(6), pp.1173-1187 (2012).</ref> These threats include health risks and environmental damage from [[uranium mining]], processing and transport, the risk of [[nuclear proliferation|nuclear weapons proliferation]] or sabotage, and the unsolved problem of radioactive [[nuclear waste]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theworldreporter.com/2010/09/nuclear-energy-is-not-green.html |title=Nuclear Energy is not a New Clear Resource |publisher=Theworldreporter.com |date=2010-09-02 }}</ref><ref name=gierec>Greenpeace International and European Renewable Energy Council (January 2007). ''[http://www.energyblueprint.info/fileadmin/media/documents/energy_revolution.pdf Energy Revolution: A Sustainable World Energy Outlook]'', p. 7.</ref><ref name=protest>{{cite book|author=Giugni, Marco |title=Social protest and policy change: ecology, antinuclear, and peace movements in comparative perspective |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Kn6YhNtyVigC&pg=PA44 |year=2004 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9780742518278 |pages=44–}}</ref> They also contend that reactors themselves are enormously complex machines where many things can and do go wrong, and there have been many serious [[nuclear accidents]].<ref>[[Stephanie Cooke]] (2009). ''[[In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age]]'', Black Inc., p. 280.</ref><ref name="DoienpolMissing">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2008.01.040 |title=The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907–2007 |year=2008 |last1=Sovacool |first1=Benjamin K. |journal=Energy Policy |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=1802}}</ref> Critics do not believe that these risks can be reduced through new [[technology]].<ref>[[Jim Green (councilman)|Jim Green]] . [http://www.foe.org.au/anti-nuclear/issues/nfc/power-weapons/g4nw Nuclear Weapons and 'Fourth Generation' Reactors] ''Chain Reaction'', August 2009, pp. 18-21.</ref> They argue that when all the energy-intensive stages of the [[nuclear fuel chain]] are considered, from uranium mining to [[nuclear decommissioning]], nuclear power is not a low-carbon electricity source.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/climate.2008.99 |title=Nuclear energy: Assessing the emissions |year=2008 |last1=Kleiner |first1=Kurt |journal=Nature Reports Climate Change |issue=810 |pages=130}}</ref><ref>[[Mark Diesendorf]] (2007). ''[[Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy]]'', University of New South Wales Press, p. 252.</ref><ref name = markd>Mark Diesendorf. [http://www.ceem.unsw.edu.au/content/userDocs/NukesSocialAlternativesMD.pdf Is nuclear energy a possible solution to global warming?]</ref>
 
===Fusion===
[[Fusion power]] is only at the early experimental stage, but some hope it could eventually solve many of the problems of [[nuclear fission|fission power]]<ref>Radioactivity.  By P. Andrew Karam, Ben P. Stein. p50-51</ref> (the technology mentioned above). Despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.iter.org/index.htm
| title= What is ITER?
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |work= |publisher= ITER International Fusion Energy Organization
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071218134708/http://www.iter.org/index.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2007-12-18 |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }}</ref>  Many technical problems remain unsolved. Proposed fusion reactors commonly use [[deuterium]] (''primary renewable chemical''), an [[isotope]] of [[hydrogen]], as fuel and in most current designs also [[lithium]]. Assuming a fusion energy output equal to the current global output (and assuming that this does not increase in the future), then the known current lithium reserves would last 3,000 years.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.fusie-energie.nl/artikelen/ongena.pdf
|format=PDF| title= Energy for Future Centuries: Will fusion be an inexhaustible, safe and clean energy source?
| author= J. Ongena | coauthors= G. Van Oost
|date= |year= |month= |work= |publisher=
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }}</ref>
 
:''See also:'' ''[[Fusion power#History of research|History of fusion research]]''
 
==Renewable sources==
{{Main|Renewable energy|Renewable energy commercialization}}
[[Image:Alternative Energies.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[wind]], [[sun]], and [[biomass]] are three renewable energy sources.]]
 
'''Renewable energy''' is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale such as [[sunlight]], [[wind]], [[rain]], [[tidal power|tides]], [[wave power|waves]] and [[geothermal energy|geothermal heat]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thebulletin.org/myth-renewable-energy |title=The myth of renewable energy &#124; Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |publisher=Thebulletin.org |date=2011-11-22 |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref> Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: [[electricity generation]], [[solar hot water|hot water]]/[[space heating]], [[motor fuel]]s, and [[Stand-alone power system|rural (off-grid)]] energy services.<ref name=ren15>REN21 (2010). [http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/REN21_GSR_2010_full_revised%20Sept2010.pdf Renewables 2010 Global Status Report]{{dead link|date=August 2013}} p. 15.</ref>
 
About 16% of global final energy consumption presently comes from [[renewable resource]]s, with 10% <ref>http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/cooking.pdf</ref> of all energy from traditional [[biomass]], mainly used for [[heating]], and 3.4% from [[hydroelectricity]]. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) account for another 3% and are growing rapidly.<ref name="ria21">{{cite web |url=http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/Resources/GSR2011_FINAL.pdf|title=Renewables 2011: Global Status Report |author=[[REN21]] |year=2011 |pages=17, 18}}</ref> At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://new.ren21.net/Portals/0/REN21_GFR_2013_print.pdf |title=Renewables global futures report 2013 |author=REN21 |year=2013 |work= }}</ref> [[Wind power]], for example, is growing at the rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide [[Installed wind power capacity|installed capacity]] of 282,482 [[megawatt]]s (MW) at the end of 2012.
 
Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and [[efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] is resulting in significant [[Energy security and renewable technology|energy security]], [[climate change mitigation]], and economic benefits.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iea.org/Textbase/npsum/ETP2012SUM.pdf |title=Energy Technology Perspectives 2012 |author= International Energy Agency |year=2012 |work= }}</ref> In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power.<ref name="UNEP">United Nations Environment Programme [http://sefi.unep.org/fileadmin/media/sefi/docs/publications/SEFI_Investment_Report_2007.pdf ''Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment 2007: Analysis of Trends and Issues in the Financing of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in OECD and Developing Countries''] (PDF), p. 3.</ref>
 
While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to [[rural]] and remote areas and [[Renewable energy in developing countries|developing countries]], where energy is often crucial in [[Human development (humanity)|human development]].<ref>World Energy Assessment (2001). [http://www.undp.org/energy/activities/wea/drafts-frame.html Renewable energy technologies], p. 221.</ref> [[United Nations]]' Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]] has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity.<ref name="renewableenergyworld1">{{cite web |url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/08/u-n-secretary-general-renewables-can-end-energy-poverty?cmpid=WNL-Friday-August26-2011 |title=U.N. Secretary-General: Renewables Can End Energy Poverty |author=Steve Leone |date=25 August 2011 |work=Renewable Energy World }}</ref>
 
===Wind===
{{See also|Wind power|List of onshore wind farms|List of offshore wind farms}}
[[File:GlobalWindPowerCumulativeCapacity.png|thumb|right|Wind power: worldwide installed capacity (c. May 2011)<ref name="GWEC_Market">[http://www.gwec.net/index.php?id=180 GWEC, Global Wind Report Annual Market Update]</ref><br /><small>See also: [http://www.wwindea.org/ WWEA]</small>]]
[[File:Pretty flamingos - geograph.org.uk - 578705.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Burbo Bank Offshore Wind Farm]], at the entrance to the [[River Mersey]] in North West England.]]
 
Wind (''primary renewable natural'') power harnesses the power of the wind to propel the blades of [[wind turbine]]s. These turbines cause the rotation of [[magnet]]s, which creates electricity. Wind towers are usually built together on [[wind farm]]s. Wind power is growing at the rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide [[Installed wind power capacity|installed capacity]] of 282,482 [[megawatt]]s (MW) at the end of 2012.  Energy production is more than 450 TWh, which is about 2.5% of worldwide electricity usage.<ref name="wwea">
{{cite web
  | publisher = [[World Wind Energy Association]]
  | title = World Wind Energy Report 2010
  | format = PDF
  | work = Report
  | date = February 2011
  | url = http://www.wwindea.org/home/images/stories/pdfs/worldwindenergyreport2010_s.pdf
  | accessdate = 8 August 2011}}</ref><ref name=wor>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwatch.org/node/6102?emc=el&m=239273&l=5&v=ca5d0bd2df |title=Wind Power Increase in 2008 Exceeds 10-year Average Growth Rate |publisher=Worldwatch.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-29}}</ref>
 
Wind power is widely used in [[Wind power in the European Union|Europe]], [[Wind power in China|Asia]], and the [[Wind power in the United States|United States]].<ref name="Glob">[http://www.gwec.net/uploads/media/07-02_PR_Global_Statistics_2006.pdf Global wind energy markets continue to boom – 2006 another record year] (PDF).</ref> Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 21% of stationary electricity production in [[Wind power in Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="wwea"/> 18% in [[Wind power in Portugal|Portugal]],<ref name="wwea"/> 16% in [[Wind power in Spain|Spain]],<ref name="wwea"/> 14% in [[Wind power in Ireland|Ireland]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eirgrid.com/renewables/ |title=Renewables |publisher=eirgrid.com |accessdate=22 November 2010}}</ref> and 9% in [[Wind power in Germany|Germany]] in 2010.<ref name="wwea"/><ref name=ren212011>{{cite web |url=http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/GSR2011_Master18.pdf |title=Renewables 2011: Global Status Report |author=[[REN21]] |year=2011 |page=11 }}</ref> By 2011, at times over 50% of electricity in Germany and Spain came from wind and solar power.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/may/28/solar-power-world-record-germany Solar power generation world record set in Germany]</ref><ref>[http://www.wind-works.org/FeedLaws/Spain/SpainRenewableEnergyandHighPenetration.html Spain Renewable Energy and High Penetration]</ref> As of 2011, 83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.<ref name=ren212011/>
 
Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the USA. As of 2012, the [[Alta Wind Energy Center]] is the largest onshore wind farm in the world, with a capacity of 1020 [[Megawatt|MW]] of power, followed by the [[Roscoe Wind Farm]] (781.5 MW). As of 2013, the 504 MW [[Greater Gabbard wind farm]] in the UK is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, followed by the 367 MW [[Walney Wind Farm]] in the UK. Wind power produces minimal pollution that can contaminate the environment, because there are no [[chemical reaction|chemical processes]] involved in wind power generation. Hence, there are no waste by-products, such as [[carbon dioxide]]. Power from the wind does not contribute to [[global warming]] because it does not generate [[greenhouse gas]]es.  Wind towers can be beneficial for people living permanently, or temporarily, in remote areas. It may be difficult to transport electricity from a power plant to a far-away location and thus, wind towers can be set up at the remote setting. Farming and grazing can still take place on land occupied by wind turbines. Those utilizing wind power in a grid-tie configuration will have backup power in the event of a [[power outage]]. Because of the ability of wind turbines to coexist within agricultural fields, siting costs are frequently low.
 
===Hydroelectricity===
{{Main|Hydroelectricity}}
 
[[File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg|thumb| The 22,500 [[Megawatt|MW]] [[Three Gorges Dam]] in the [[Peoples Republic of China]], the largest hydroelectric power station in the world.]]
 
Hydroelectricity  is the term referring to [[electricity]] generated by [[hydropower]]; the production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of [[renewable energy]], accounting for  16 percent of global electricity generation – 3,427 terawatt-hours of electricity production in 2010,<ref name=wi2012/> and is expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years.
 
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW: the [[Three Gorges Dam]] in China, [[Itaipu Dam]] across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and [[Guri Dam]] in Venezuela.<ref name=wi2012>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwatch.org/node/9527 |title=Use and Capacity of Global Hydropower Increases |author=Worldwatch Institute |date=January 2012 |work= }}</ref>
 
The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour.<ref name=wi2012/> Hydro is also a flexible source of electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. However, damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife.<ref name=wi2012/> Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of the [[greenhouse gas]] [[carbon dioxide]] ({{co2}}) than [[fossil fuel]] powered energy plants.<ref name="REN21-2011">[http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/REN21_GSR2011.pdf Renewables 2011 Global Status Report, page 25, Hydropower], ''[[REN21]]'', published 2011, accessed 2011-11-7.</ref>
 
===Solar===
{{Main|Solar energy|Photovoltaics}}
[[File:Solar Plant kl.jpg|thumb|Part of the 354 MW [[SEGS]] solar complex in northern [[San Bernadino County, California]].]]
[[File:12-05-08 AS1.JPG|thumb|right|The 150 MW [[Andasol Solar Power Station]] is a commercial [[parabolic trough]] [[solar thermal]] power plant, located in [[Renewable energy in Spain|Spain]]. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity even when the sun isn't shining.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saving for a rainy day |author=Edwin Cartlidge |date=18 November 2011 |work=Science (Vol 334) |pages=922–924 }}</ref>]]
[[File:Ombrière SUDI - Sustainable Urban Design & Innovation.jpg|thumb|Photovoltaic SUDI shade is an autonomous and mobile station in France that provides energy for electric vehicles using solar energy.]]
 
[[Solar energy]], radiant [[light]] and [[heat]] from the [[sun]], is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as [[solar heating]], [[solar photovoltaics]], [[solar thermal electricity]], [[solar architecture]] and [[artificial photosynthesis]].<ref name=ie11/><ref>Solar Fuels and Artificial Photosynthesis. Royal Society of Chemistry 2012 http://www.rsc.org/ScienceAndTechnology/Policy/Documents/solar-fuels.asp (accessed 11 March 2013)</ref>
 
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either [[passive solar]] or [[active solar]] depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and [[solar thermal energy|solar thermal]] collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable [[thermal mass]] or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that [[Ventilation (architecture)|naturally circulate air]].
 
In 2011, the [[International Energy Agency]] said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance [[sustainability]], reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating [[climate change]], and keep [[fossil fuel]] prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared".<ref name=ie11>{{cite web | url = http://www.iea.org/Textbase/npsum/solar2011SUM.pdf | title = Solar Energy Perspectives: Executive Summary | year = 2011 | format = PDF | publisher = International Energy Agency | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/63fIHKr1S | archivedate = 2011-12-03}}</ref>
 
[[Photovoltaics]] (PV) is a method of [[Electricity generation|generating electrical power]] by converting [[solar radiation]] into [[direct current]] [[electricity]] using [[semiconductor]]s that exhibit the [[photovoltaic effect]]. Photovoltaic power generation employs [[solar panel]]s composed of a number of [[solar cell]]s containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics include [[monocrystalline silicon]], [[polycrystalline silicon]], [[amorphous silicon]], [[cadmium telluride]], and [[copper indium gallium selenide]]/sulfide. Due to the increased demand for [[renewable energy]] sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and [[Photovoltaic system|photovoltaic arrays]] has advanced considerably in recent years.
 
Solar photovoltaics is a [[Sustainability|sustainable]] energy source.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Pearce, Joshua |title=Photovoltaics – A Path to Sustainable Futures|journal=Futures|volume=34|issue=7|pages=663–674|year=2002|url=http://mtu.academia.edu/JoshuaPearce/Papers/1540219/Photovoltaics_-_a_path_to_sustainable_futures open access|doi=10.1016/S0016-3287(02)00008-3}}</ref> By the end of 2011, a total of 71.1 GW<ref name=epia-2013>{{cite web |url=http://www.epia.org/news/publications/ |title=Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2013-2017 |author=European Photovoltaic Industry Association |year=2013}}</ref> had been installed, sufficient to generate 85 TWh/year.<ref name=epia2012>{{cite web |url=http://www.epia.org/index.php?eID=tx_nawsecuredl&u=0&file=fileadmin/EPIA_docs/publications/epia/EPIA-market-report-2011.pdf&t=1336509071&hash=c440f688a562514b0fda2a03c5d6453f |title=Market Report 2011 |author=European Photovoltaic Industry Association |year=2012 |work= }}</ref> And by end of 2012, the 100 GW installed capacity milestone was achieved.<ref>[http://www.renewindians.com/2013/02/global-solar-pv-installed-capacity-crosses-100GW-Mark.html Global Solar PV installed Capacity crosses 100GW Mark]. renewindians.com (11 February 2013).</ref> Solar photovoltaics is now, after hydro and wind power, the third most important renewable energy source in terms of globally installed capacity. More than 100 countries use solar PV. Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a building (either [[building-integrated photovoltaics]] or simply rooftop).
 
Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics has declined steadily since the first solar cells were manufactured,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://phys.iit.edu/~segre/phys100/science_2009_324_891.pdf|doi=10.1126/science.1169616|title=Photovoltaics Power Up|year=2009|last1=Swanson|first1=R. M.|journal=Science|volume=324|issue=5929|pages=891–2|pmid=19443773 }}</ref> and the levelised cost of electricity ([[LCOE]]) from PV is competitive with conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of geographic regions. [[Net metering]] and financial incentives, such as preferential [[feed-in tariff]]s for solar-generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries.<ref>Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st century (REN21), [http://www.ren21.net/REN21Activities/GlobalStatusReport.aspx Renewables 2010 Global Status Report], Paris, 2010, pp. 1–80.</ref> With current technology, photovoltaics recoup the energy needed to manufacture them in 3 to 4 years.  Anticipated technology would reduce time needed to recoup the energy to 1 to 2 years.<ref>[http://energy.ltgovernors.com/investing-in-solar-electricity-whats-the-payback.html Investing in Solar Electricity. What’s the Payback?]. energy.ltgovernors.com. Retrieved on 21 April 2012.</ref>
 
===Biofuels===
[[Image:Soybeanbus.jpg|right|thumb|thumb|A bus fueled by [[biodiesel]]]]
[[File:EthanolPetrol.jpg|right||thumb|Information on pump regarding [[ethanol fuel]] blend up to&nbsp;10%, [[California]]]]
{{Main|Biofuel|Sustainable biofuel}}
A biofuel is a [[fuel]] that contains energy from geologically recent [[carbon fixation]]. These fuels are produced from [[living organisms]]. Examples of this [[carbon fixation]] occur in [[plants]] and [[microalgae]]. These fuels are made by a [[biomass]] conversion (biomass refers to recently living organisms, most often referring to [[plants]] or plant-derived materials). This biomass can be converted to convenient energy containing substances in three different ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion. This biomass conversion can result in fuel in [[solid]], [[liquid]], or [[gas]] form. This new biomass can be used for biofuels. Biofuels have increased in popularity because of rising [[oil prices]] and the need for [[energy security]].
 
[[Bioethanol]] is an [[alcohol]] made by [[Ethanol fermentation|fermentation]], mostly from [[carbohydrate]]s produced in [[sugar]] or [[starch]] crops such as [[Maize|corn]] or [[sugarcane]]. [[cellulose|Cellulosic biomass]], derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a [[feedstock]] for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a [[gasoline]] [[Fuel additive|additive]] to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the [[Biofuel in the United States|USA]] and in [[Ethanol fuel in Brazil|Brazil]]. Current plant design does not provide for converting the [[lignin]] portion of plant raw materials to fuel components by fermentation.
 
[[Biodiesel]] is made from [[vegetable oil]]s and [[animal fat]]s. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a [[diesel fuel|diesel]] additive to reduce levels of particulates, [[carbon monoxide]], and [[hydrocarbon]]s from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using [[transesterification]] and is the most common biofuel in Europe.
 
In 2010, worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters (28 billion gallons US), up 17% from 2009,<ref name=Biofuels2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwatch.org/biofuels-make-comeback-despite-tough-economy|title=Biofuels Make a Comeback Despite Tough Economy|publisher=[[Worldwatch Institute]]|date=2011-08-31|accessdate=2011-08-31}}</ref> and biofuels provided 2.7% of the world's fuels for road transport, a contribution largely made up of ethanol and biodiesel.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} Global [[ethanol fuel]] production reached 86 billion liters (23 billion gallons US) in 2010, with the United States and Brazil as the world's top producers, accounting together for 90% of global production. The world's largest biodiesel producer is the [[European Union]], accounting for 53% of all biodiesel production in 2010.<ref name=Biofuels2010/> As of 2011, mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level and in 29 states or provinces.<ref name=ren212011>{{cite web |url=http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/GSR2011_Master18.pdf |title=Renewables 2011: Global Status Report |author=[[REN21]] |year=2011 |pages=13–14 }}{{dead link|date=December 2012}}</ref> The [[International Energy Agency]] has a goal for biofuels to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050 to reduce dependence on petroleum and coal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/biofuels_roadmap.pdf |year= 2011 |title=Technology Roadmap, Biofuels for Transport }}</ref>
 
===Geothermal===
{{Main|Geothermal energy}}
[[Image:NesjavellirPowerPlant edit2.jpg|thumb|Steam rising from the [[Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station]] in [[Iceland]].]]
Geothermal energy is [[thermal energy]] generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the [[temperature]] of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earth's [[Crust (geology)|crust]] originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from [[radioactive decay]] of minerals (80%).<ref name=ucsusa>[http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/renewable-energy/how-geothermal-energy-works.html How Geothermal energy works]. Ucsusa.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-24.</ref>  The [[geothermal gradient]], which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of [[heat]] from the core to the surface. The adjective ''geothermal'' originates from the Greek roots ''γη (ge)'', meaning earth, and ''θερμος (thermos)'', meaning hot.
 
[[Earth's internal heat budget|Earth's internal heat]] is thermal energy generated from [[radioactive decay]] and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the [[core mantle boundary|core-mantle boundary]] may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F).<ref>Lay, T., Hernlund, J., & Buffett, B. A. (2008). Core–mantle boundary heat flow. Nature Geoscience, 1(1), 25-32.</ref> The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] to behave plastically, resulting in portions of [[mantle convection|mantle convecting]] upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock.  Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).<ref>{{cite web|last=Nemzer|first=J|title=Geothermal heating and cooling|url=http://www.geothermal.marin.org/}}</ref>
 
From [[hot springs]], geothermal energy has been used for bathing since [[Paleolithic]] times and for [[space heating]] since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for [[electricity generation]]. Worldwide, 11,400 [[megawatts]] (MW) of geothermal power is online in 24 countries in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/about-bp/statistical-review-of-world-energy-2013/review-by-energy-type/renewable-energy/geothermal-capacity.html |title=Geothermal capacity &#124; About BP &#124; BP Global |publisher=Bp.com |date= |accessdate=2013-10-05}}</ref>  An additional 28 gigawatts  of direct [[geothermal heating]] capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications in 2010.<ref name="IPCC">Fridleifsson, Ingvar B.; Bertani, Ruggero; Huenges, Ernst; Lund, John W.; Ragnarsson, Arni; Rybach, Ladislaus (2008-02-11), O. Hohmeyer and T. Trittin, ed., The possible role and contribution of geothermal energy to the mitigation of climate change (pdf), IPCC Scoping Meeting on Renewable Energy Sources, Luebeck, Germany, pp. 59–80, retrieved 2009-04-06</ref>
 
Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly,<ref>Glassley, William E. (2010). ''Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment'', CRC Press, ISBN 9781420075700.</ref> but has historically been limited to areas near [[tectonic plate boundaries]]. Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the potential to help mitigate [[global warming]] if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.
 
The Earth's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity's energy needs, but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited. Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very expensive. Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology, energy prices, subsidies, and interest rates. Pilot programs like EWEB's customer opt in Green Power Program <ref>[http://www.eweb.org/greenpower Green Power]. eweb.org</ref> show that customers would be willing to pay a little more for a renewable energy source like geothermal. But as a result of government assisted research and industry experience, the cost of generating geothermal power has decreased by 25% over the past two decades.<ref>{{Citation|last=Cothran|first=Helen|title=Energy Alternatives|year=2002|publisher=Greenhaven Press|isbn=0737709049}}</ref> In 2001, geothermal energy cost between two and ten US cents per kWh.<ref>{{cite web|last=Fridleifsson|first=Ingvar|title=ScienceDirect – Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews : Geothermal energy for the benefit of the people|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032101000028|accessdate=14 November 2011}}</ref>
 
===100% renewable energy===
{{Main|100% renewable energy}}
The incentive to use 100% renewable energy, for electricity, transport, or even total primary energy supply globally, has been motivated by [[global warming]] and other ecological as well as economic concerns. [[Renewable energy commercialization|Renewable energy use]] has grown much faster than anyone anticipated.<ref name=pg11>{{cite web |url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/04/100-percent-renewable-vision-building?amp;buffer_share=fdc06 |title=100 Percent Renewable Vision Building |author=Paul Gipe |date=4 April 2013 |work=Renewable Energy World }}</ref> The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] has said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand.<ref name="IPCC 2011 17">{{cite web |url=http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report/IPCC_SRREN_SPM.pdf |title=Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation |author=IPCC |year=2011 |work=Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA |page=17 }}</ref> At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply.  Also, Professors S. Pacala and [[Robert H. Socolow]] have developed a series of “[[stabilization wedges]]” that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change, and "renewable energy sources," in aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges." <ref name=Pacala>{{cite web |url=http://www.princeton.edu/mae/people/faculty/socolow/Science-2004-SW-1100103-PAPER-AND-SOM.pdf|title= Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current Technologies |author=S. Pacala and R. Socolow |year=2004|pages=968–972.|publisher=Science Vol. 305}}</ref>
 
[[Mark Z. Jacobson]] says producing all new energy with [[wind power]], [[solar power]],  and [[hydropower]] by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs.<ref name=enpol2011>{{cite web |url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/DJEnPolicyPt2.pdf |title=Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part II: Reliability, system and transmission costs, and policies |author=Mark A. Delucchi and Mark Z. Jacobson |year=2011| volume= 39 |work=Energy Policy |pages=1170–1190 |publisher=Elsevier Ltd }}</ref>
 
Similarly, in the United States, the independent National Research Council has noted that “sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change, energy security, and the escalation of energy costs … Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand." .<ref name=NRC>{{cite web |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12619|title=Electricity from Renewable Resources: Status, Prospects, and Impediments  |author=National Research Council| year=2010|pages=4|publisher=National Academies of Science}}</ref>
 
Critics of the "100% renewable energy" approach include [[Vaclav Smil]] and [[James E. Hansen]]. Smil and Hansen are concerned about the [[variable renewable energy|variable output]] of solar and wind power, but many other scientists and engineers have analysed this situation and said that the [[electricity grid]] can cope.<ref name=lovi12>{{cite web |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/137246/amory-b-lovins/a-farewell-to-fossil-fuels |title=A Farewell to Fossil Fuels |author=Amory Lovins |date=March/April 2012 |work=Foreign Affairs }}</ref>
 
== Increased energy efficiency ==
{{Main|Efficient energy use}}
[[File:Compact-Fluorescent-Bulb.jpg|thumb|upright=1.00|A spiral-type integrated [[compact fluorescent lamp]], which has been popular among North American consumers since its introduction in the mid-1990s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Philips Tornado Asian Compact Fluorescent | publisher=Philips | accessdate=2007-12-24 | url=http://www.lamptech.co.uk/Spec%20Sheets/Philips%20CFL%20Tornado.htm}}</ref>]]
 
Although increasing the efficiency of energy use is not energy development per se, it may be considered under the topic of energy development since it makes existing energy sources available to do work.<ref>Richard L. Kauffman
[http://environment.research.yale.edu/documents/downloads/0-9/03-Kauffman.pdf Obstacles to Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency]. in:  From Silos to Systems: Issues in Clean Energy and Climate Change.  A report on the work of the REIL Network, 2008-2010.  Edited by Parker L et al.  Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies 2010</ref>{{rp|22}}
 
Efficient energy use, simply called energy efficiency, is the goal of efforts to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products and services. For example, [[building insulation|insulating a home]] allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain a comfortable temperature. Installing [[fluorescent lights]] or natural [[Skylight (window)|skylights]] reduces the amount of energy required to attain the same level of illumination compared to using traditional [[incandescent light bulbs]]. [[Compact fluorescent lights]] use two-thirds less energy and may last 6 to 10 times longer than incandescent lights.  Improvements in energy efficiency are most often achieved by adopting an efficient technology or production process.<ref>[[Mark Diesendorf|Diesendorf, Mark]] (2007). ''[[Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy]]'', UNSW Press, p. 86.</ref>
 
There are various motivations to improve energy efficiency.  Reducing energy use reduces energy costs and may result in a financial cost saving to consumers if the energy savings offset any additional costs of implementing an energy efficient technology.  Reducing energy use is also seen as a key solution to the problem of reducing emissions.  According to the [[International Energy Agency]], improved energy efficiency in [[Energy efficient buildings|buildings]], industrial processes and [[Sustainable transportation|transportation]] could reduce the world's energy needs in 2050 by one third, and help control global emissions of greenhouse gases.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sophie Hebden |url=http://www.scidev.net/News/index.cfm?fuseaction=readNews&itemid=2929&language=1 |title=Invest in clean technology says IEA report |publisher=Scidev.net |date=2006-06-22 |accessdate=2010-07-16}}</ref>
 
Energy efficiency and [[renewable energy]] are said to be the ''twin pillars'' of sustainable energy policy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aceee.org/store/proddetail.cfm?CFID=2957330&CFTOKEN=50269931&ItemID=432&CategoryID=7 |title=The Twin Pillars of Sustainable Energy: Synergies between Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technology and Policy |publisher=Aceee.org |date= |accessdate=2010-07-16 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080505041521/http://aceee.org/store/proddetail.cfm?CFID=2957330&CFTOKEN=50269931&ItemID=432&CategoryID=7 |archivedate = 2008-05-05}}</ref> In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted.
 
== Transmission ==
[[File:Pipeline-small image, seen from below.jpeg|thumb|right|An elevated section of the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System|Alaska Pipeline]].]]
While new sources of energy are only rarely discovered or made possible by new [[technologies|technology]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]] technology continually evolves.<ref>[https://publicaffairs.llnl.gov/news/energy/content/international/United_States_Energy_2007.png U.S. Energy Utilization in 2007]</ref> The use of [[fuel cell]]s in cars, for example, is an anticipated delivery technology.<ref>Fuel Cell Materials Technology in Vehicular Propulsion: Report. National Academies, 1983.</ref> This section presents the various delivery technologies that have been important to historic energy development. They all rely in way on the energy sources listed in the previous section.
 
=== Shipping and pipelines ===
{{See also|Pipeline transport}}
[[Shipping]] is a flexible delivery technology that is used in the whole range of energy development regimes from primitive to highly advanced.  Currently, [[coal]], [[petroleum]] and their derivatives are delivered by shipping via boat, [[Rail transport|rail]], or road. Petroleum and natural gas may also be delivered via [[pipeline transport|pipeline]] and coal via a [[Slurry pipeline]]. Refined hydrocarbon fuels such as [[gasoline]] and [[Liquified petroleum gas|LPG]] may also be delivered via [[aircraft]]. Natural gas pipelines must maintain a certain minimum pressure to function correctly. [[Ethanol]]'s corrosive properties make it harder to build ethanol pipelines.<!-- There are ethanol pipelines being built, so don't say it is impossible --> The higher costs of ethanol transportation and storage are often prohibitive.<ref>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v40_1_07/article08.shtml
| title = Oak Ridge National Laboratory — Biomass, Solving the science is only part of the challenge
| accessdate = 2008-01-06
}}</ref> [[Geomagnetically induced currents]], seen as interfering with the normal operation of long buried pipeline systems, are a manifestation<ref>[http://eurisgic.org/ GIC measurements] eurisgic.org</ref><ref>[http://www.spacew.com/ Solar Terrestrial Dispatch] - Leaders in Space Weather Forecasting Services</ref> at ground level of space weather that occur due to time-varying ionospheric source fields and the conductivity of the Earth.
 
{{see also|List of natural gas pipelines|Natural gas pipeline system in the United States|Trans-Alaska Pipeline System|Central Asia–Center gas pipeline system|Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhgorod pipeline|Northern Lights (pipeline)}}
{{see also|List of oil pipelines|Pan-European Oil Pipeline|Tazama Pipeline|Eastern Siberia–Pacific Ocean oil pipeline|Baltic Pipeline System}}
 
=== Wired energy transfer ===
{{main|Electrical grid}}
[[File:Electricalgrid.jpg|thumb|Electric Grid: Pylons and cables distribute power]]
Electricity grids are the [[electrical network|networks]] used to [[Electric power transmission|transmit]] and [[Electricity distribution|distribute]] [[electric power|power]] from production source to end user, when the two may be hundreds of kilometres away.  Sources include electrical generation plants such as a [[nuclear reactor]], coal burning power plant, etc.  A combination of sub-stations, transformers, [[tower]]s, [[cable]]s, and [[piping]] are used to maintain a constant flow of electricity. Grids may suffer from transient [[Power blackout|blackouts]] and [[power outage|brownouts]], often due to weather damage. During certain extreme [[space weather]] events [[solar wind]] can interfere with transmissions. Grids also have a predefined [[carrying capacity]] or load that cannot safely be exceeded. When power requirements exceed what's available, failures are inevitable. To prevent problems, power is then rationed.
 
Industrialised countries such as [[Canada]], the [[United States|US]], and [[Australia]] are among the highest per capita consumers of electricity in the world, which is possible thanks to a widespread electrical distribution network. The US grid is one of the most advanced, although [[infrastructure]] maintenance is becoming a problem. [http://currentenergy.lbl.gov/ CurrentEnergy] provides a realtime overview of the electricity supply and demand for [[California]], [[Texas]], and the Northeast of the US. African countries with small scale electrical grids have a correspondingly low annual per capita usage of electricity. One of the most powerful power grids in the world supplies power to the state of [[Queensland]], Australia.
 
===Wireless energy transfer===
{{Main|Wireless energy transfer}}
[[Wireless]] energy transfer is a process whereby electrical energy is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load that does not have a built-in power source, without the use of interconnecting wires.
{{see also|World Wireless System}}
 
== Storage ==
{{Main|Energy storage|List of energy storage projects}}
[[Image:Stwlan.dam.jpg|thumb|right|The Llyn Stwlan dam of the [[Ffestiniog Power Station|Ffestiniog]] [[Pumped-storage hydroelectricity|Pumped Storage Scheme]] in Wales. The lower power station has four water turbines which can generate a total of 360 MW of electricity for several hours, an example of artificial energy storage and conversion.]]
 
Energy storage is accomplished by devices or physical media that store [[energy]] to perform useful operation at a later time. A device that stores energy is sometimes called an [[Accumulator (energy)|accumulator]].
 
All forms of energy are either [[potential energy]] (e.g. [[Chemical energy|Chemical]], [[gravitation]]al, [[Electric potential energy|electrical energy]], temperature differential, [[latent heat]], etc.) or [[kinetic energy]] (e.g. [[momentum]]). Some technologies provide only short-term energy storage, and others can be very long-term such as [[power to gas]] using [[hydrogen]] or [[methane]] and the [[Seasonal thermal energy storage|storage of heat or cold between opposing seasons]] in deep aquifers or bedrock.  A wind-up clock stores potential energy (in this case mechanical, in the spring tension), a [[Battery (electricity)|battery]] stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a mobile phone, and a [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] dam stores [[Electrical power industry|energy]] in a [[reservoir]] as gravitational [[potential energy]]. [[Thermal energy storage#Air conditioning|Ice storage]] tanks store ice ([[thermal energy]] in the form of latent heat) at night to meet peak demand for cooling. [[Fossil fuel]]s such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later died, became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels. Even [[food]] (which is made by the same process as fossil fuels) is a form of energy stored in [[chemical]] form.
 
==History of energy development==
[[File:Doel Kerncentrale.JPG|thumb|right|Energy generators past and present at [[Doel]], Belgium: 17th century windmill ''Scheldemolen'' and 20th century  [[Doel Nuclear Power Station]]]]
Since prehistory, when humanity discovered fire to warm up and roast food, through the Middle Ages in which populations built windmills to grind the wheat, until the modern era in which nations can get electricity splitting the atom. Man has sought endlessly for energy sources<ref group="note">All terrestrial energy sources except nuclear, geothermal and [[tidal power|tidal]] are from current solar isolation or from fossil remains of plant and animal life that relied directly and indirectly upon sunlight, respectively. Ultimately, [[solar power|solar energy]] itself is the result of the [[Sun]]'s nuclear fusion. [[Geothermal power]] from hot, hardened [[Rock (geology)|rock]] above the [[magma]] of the Earth's core is the result of the decay of radioactive materials present beneath the Earth's crust, and [[nuclear fission]] relies on man-made fission of heavy radioactive elements in the Earth's crust; in both cases these elements were produced in [[supernova]] explosions before the formation of the [[solar system]].</ref> from which to draw profit, which have been the fossil fuels, on one hand the coal to fuel the steam engines run industrial rails as well as maintain households, and secondly, the oil and its derivatives in the industry and transportation (primarily automotive), although have lived with smaller-scale exploitation of wind power, hydro and biomass. This model of development, however, is based on the depletion of fossil resources from periods of millions years without possibility for replacement as would be required to maintain. The search for energy sources that are inexhaustible and utilization by industrialized countries to strengthen their national economies by reducing its dependence on fossil fuels,<ref group="note">Concentrated in foreign territories after the exploitation and exhaustion of their own resource.</ref> has led to the adoption of nuclear energy and those with sufficient water resources, the intensive hydraulic use of their waterways.
 
Since the beginning of the [[Industrial Revolution]], the question of the future of energy supplies has been of interest. In 1865, [[William Stanley Jevons]] published ''The Coal Question'' in which he saw that the reserves of coal were being depleted and that oil was an ineffective replacement. In 1914, [[United States Bureau of Mines|U.S. Bureau of Mines]] stated that the total production was {{convert|5.7|Goilbbl|m3}}. In 1956, Geophysicist [[M. King Hubbert]] deduces that U.S. oil production will peak between 1965 and 1970 (peaked in 1971) and that oil production will peak "within half a century" on the basis of 1956 data.<ref group="note">See [[Hubbert peak theory]].</ref> In 1989, predicted peak by [[Colin Campbell (geologist)|Colin Campbell]]<ref>"Oil Price Leap in the Early Nineties," Noroil, December 1989, pages 35–38.</ref> In 2004, OPEC estimated, with substantial investments, it would nearly double oil output by 2025<ref>Opec Oil Outlook to 2025 Table 4, Page 12</ref>
 
===Sustainability===
{{See also|Climate change mitigation|Carbon pricing}}
[[File:Energy-consumption-World2.png|thumb|right|400px|Energy consumption from 1989 to 1999]]
 
The [[environmental movement]] has emphasized [[sustainability]] of energy use and development.<ref>Sustainable Development and Innovation in the Energy Sector. Ulrich Steger, Wouter Achterberg, Kornelis Blok, Henning Bode, Walter Frenz, Corinna Gather, Gerd Hanekamp, Dieter Imboden, Matthias Jahnke, Michael Kost, Rudi Kurz, Hans G. Nutzinger, Thomas Ziesemer. Springer, Dec 5, 2005.</ref> [[Renewable energy]] is sustainable in its production; the available supply will not be diminished for the foreseeable future - millions or billions of years.  "Sustainability" also refers to the ability of the environment to cope with waste products, especially [[air pollution]].  Sources which have no direct waste products (such as wind, solar, and hydropower) are brought up on this point. With global demand for energy growing, the need to adopt various energy sources is growing. [[Energy conservation]] is an alternative or complementary process to energy development.  It reduces the demand for energy by using it efficiently.
 
===Resilience===
[[File:Energy per capita.png|thumb|right|400px|Energy consumption ''per capita'' (2001). Red hues indicate increase, green hues decrease of consumption during the 1990s.]]
 
Some observers contend that idea of "energy independence" is an unrealistic<ref group="note">Said in relation with [[Liquid metal fast breeder reactor]]. For more, see: United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Appropriations. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975. Page 7349.</ref> and opaque concept.<ref>[http://www.deloitte.com/assets/Dcom-UnitedStates/Local%20Assets/Documents/Federal/us_fed_Election_Series_101012.pdf Energy independence and security]: A reality check - [http://www.deloitte.com Deloitte]</ref> The alternative offer of "energy resilience" is a goal aligned with economic, security, and energy realities. The notion of resilience in energy was detailed in the 1982 book ''[[Brittle Power]]: Energy Strategy for National Security''.<ref>[http://www.natcapsolutions.org/publications_files/brittlepower.htm Brittle Power: Energy Plan for National Security]. [[Amory B. Lovins]] and L. Hunter Lovins (1982).</ref> The authors argued that simply switching to domestic energy would not be secure inherently because the true weakness is the interdependent and vulnerable energy infrastructure of the United States. Key aspects such as gas lines and the electrical power grid are centralized and easily susceptible to disruption. They conclude that a "resilient energy supply" is necessary for both national security and the environment. They recommend a focus on energy efficiency and renewable energy that is decentralized.<ref>[http://www.natcapsolutions.org/publications_files/FragileDomEnergy_AtlanticMonthly_Nov1983.pdf "The Fragility of Domestic Energy."] [[Amory B. Lovins]] and L. Hunter Lovins. ''Atlantic Monthly''. November 1983.</ref>
 
In 2008, former [[Intel Corporation]] Chairman and CEO [[Andrew Grove]] looked to energy resilience, arguing that complete independence is unfeasible given the global market for energy.<ref>[http://www.american.com/archive/2008/july-august-magazine-contents/our-electric-future "Our Electric Future."] [[Andrew Grove]]. ''The American''. July/August 2008.</ref> He describes energy resilience as the ability to adjust to interruptions in the supply of energy. To that end, he suggests the U.S. make greater use of electricity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.american.com/archive/2008/july-august-magazine-contents/our-electric-future|title=An Electric Plan for Energy Resilience|author=[[Andrew Grove]] and Robert Burgelman|publisher=McKinsey Quarterly|date=December 2008|accessdate=2010-07-20}}</ref> Electricity can be produced from a variety of sources. A diverse energy supply will be less impacted by the disruption in supply of any one source. He reasons that another feature of electrification is that electricity is "sticky" – meaning the electricity produced in the U.S. is to stay there because it cannot be transported overseas.  According to Grove, a key aspect of advancing electrification and energy resilience will be converting the U.S. automotive fleet from gasoline-powered to electric-powered. This, in turn, will require the modernization and expansion of the electrical power grid. As organizations such as the [[Reform Institute]] have pointed out, advancements associated with the developing [[smart grid]] would facilitate the ability of the grid to absorb vehicles ''en masse'' connecting to it to charge their batteries.<ref>[https://www.policyarchive.org/bitstream/handle/10207/16484/Electric_Car_Reform_Brief_FINAL_PDF_3-4-09.pdf?sequence=1 Resilience in Energy: Building Infrastructure Today for Tomorrow’s Automotive Fuel. Reform Institute. March 2009.]</ref>
 
===Present and Future===
[[File:World energy consumption outlook.png|thumb|400px|World Primary Energy Outlook (c. 2011)
----
''Energy Consumption''<br />
{{color box|#2589ba}} [[Liquid fuel]]s (and Biofuels);
{{color box|#b57537}} [[Coal]];
{{color box|#5f943a}} [[Natural Gas]];
{{color box|#8d3742}} [[Renewable fuel]]s (excluding Biofuels);
{{color box|#87732c}} [[Nuclear fuel]]s
----
World energy consumption outlook from the International Energy Outlook, published by the U.S. DOE Energy Information Administration. ]]
[[File:World energy consumption by region 1970-2025.png|thumb|400px|right|An increasing share of world energy consumption is predicted to be used by developing nations.
----
{{color box|#4747bf}} [[Industrialized nation]]s;
{{color box|#0e7a0d}} [[Developing nation]]s;
{{color box|#730774}} [[European Economic Community|EE]]/[[Former Soviet Union]]
----
<small>Source: [[Energy Information Administration]]: "[http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html International Energy Outlook 2004]".</small>
]]
Extrapolations from current knowledge to the future offer a choice of energy futures.<ref>[http://sapiens.revues.org/index70.html Mandil, C. (2008) "Our energy for the future". ''S.A.P.I.EN.S.'' '''1''' (1) ]</ref> Predictions parallel the [[Malthusian catastrophe]] hypothesis. Numerous are complex [[scientific modeling|models]] based [[scenario]]s as pioneered by ''[[Limits to Growth]]''. Modeling approaches offer ways to analyze diverse [[strategy|strategies]], and hopefully find a road to rapid and [[sustainable development]] of humanity. Short term [[energy crisis|energy crises]] are also a concern of energy development. Extrapolations lack plausibility, particularly when they predict a continual increase in oil consumption.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}}
 
Energy production usually requires an energy investment. Drilling for oil or building a wind power plant requires energy. The fossil fuel resources ([[#Fossil_fuels|see above]]) that are left are often increasingly difficult to extract and convert. They may thus require increasingly higher energy investments. If investment is greater than the energy produced, than the resource; It is no longer an effective energy source.<ref>Energy conservation through effective energy utilization. By United States. [[National Bureau of Standards]], [[National Science Foundation]] (U.S.), [[Engineering Foundation]] (U.S.)</ref><ref group="note">See: [[Energy returned on energy invested]]  and [[Fuel efficiency]].</ref> This means that resources, the wasteful ones, are not used effectively for energy production.<ref group="note">See: [[Waste minimisation]]</ref> Such resources can be exploited economically in order to produce raw materials;<ref group="note">For [[plastic]]s, [[fertilizer]]s, etc.</ref> They then become ordinary ''mining'' reserves, economically recoverable are not a positive energy sources. New technology may ameliorate this problem if it can lower the energy investment required to extract and convert the resources, although ultimately basic physics sets limits that cannot be exceeded.
 
Between 1950 and 1984, as the [[Green Revolution]] transformed [[agriculture]] around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by [[fossil fuels]] in the form of [[fertilizers]] (natural gas), [[pesticides]] (oil), and [[hydrocarbon]] fueled [[irrigation]].<ref>[http://www.energybulletin.net/281.html Eating Fossil Fuels]</ref> The peaking of world hydrocarbon production ([[peak oil]]) may lead to significant changes, and require sustainable methods of production.<ref>[http://www.soilassociation.org/peakoil Peak Oil: the threat to our food security] retrieved 28 May 2009</ref> One vision of a sustainable energy future involves all human structures on the earth's surface (i.e., buildings, vehicles and roads) doing [[artificial photosynthesis]] (using sunlight to split water as a source of hydrogen and absorbing carbon dioxide to make fertilizer) efficiently than plants.<ref>Faunce TA, Lubitz W, Rutherford AW, MacFarlane D, Moore, GF, Yang P, Nocera DG, Moore TA, Gregory DH, Fukuzumi S, Yoon KB, Armstrong FA, Wasielewski MR, Styring S. ‘Energy and Environment Case for a Global Project on Artificial Photosynthesis.’ Energy and Environmental Science 2013, 6 (3), 695 - 698 DOI:10.1039/C3EE00063J http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2013/ee/c3ee00063j (accessed 13 March 2013)</ref>
 
With contemporary [[space industry]]'s economic activity<ref name="Bromberg2000-1">{{cite book|author=Joan Lisa Bromberg|title=NASA and the Space Industry|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-UebVg1YqsoC&pg=PA1|accessdate=10 June 2011|date=October 2000|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-6532-9|page=1}}</ref><ref name="Schrogl2010">{{cite book|author=Kai-Uwe Schrogl|title=Yearbook on Space Policy 2008/2009: Setting New Trends|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gcZwzmPnqxkC&pg=PA49|accessdate=10 June 2011|date=2 August 2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-7091-0317-3|page=49}}</ref> and the related [[private spaceflight]], with the [[manufacturing industries]], that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions will require further energy development.<ref>Propulsion Techniques: Action and Reaction edited by Peter J. Turchi. [http://books.google.com/books?id=-o9TJa2F4qsC&pg=PA341 p341]</ref><ref>Climate Change: The Science, Impacts and Solutions. Edited by A. Pittock</ref><ref>Future Spacecraft Propulsion Systems. By Paul A. Czysz, Claudio Bruno</ref><ref>Physics of the Future. By Michio Kaku.</ref> [[Commercialization of space]] includes [[satellite navigation system]]s, [[satellite television]] and [[satellite radio]]; investments estimated to be [[United States dollar|$]]50.8 billion.<ref>{{cite news |title=SPACE A Report on the Industry |publisher=[[Defense Technical Information Center]] |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA449454 |year=2005 |last=Romano |first=Anthony F. |accessdate=15 May 2011}}</ref> There are the [[spaceport]]s of [[Spaceport Sweden|Sweden's gateway]], [[Spaceport Curaçao|Curaçao's gateway]],<ref group="note">Having the [[Lynx rocketplane]], [[Insel Air]], and [[Dutch Antilles Express]].</ref> [[Spaceport Malaysia|Malaysia's gateway]], and [[Spaceport America|America's gateway]]<ref group="note">Having [[Virgin Galactic]], [[SpaceX]], [[UP Aerospace]], and [[Armadillo Aerospace]].</ref> that plans to make personal and commercial [[suborbital spaceflight]] for [[space tourism]], [[Rotating wheel space station|space hub]]s,<ref group="note">See also: [[space station|orbital station]]</ref> [[space research]], and [[science education]], in-addition to contribute to Earth-based [[Diffusion of innovations|cross-industry innovation]]. Researchers have contemplated [[space-based solar power]] for collecting [[solar power]] in [[outer space|space]] for use on Earth.<ref group="note">Using [[solar power satellite]]s and satellite power systems, such as the [[electrodynamic tether]].</ref><ref group="note">Space-based solar power has been in research since the early 1970s.</ref> Space-based solar power only differ from solar and other similar radiant energy collection methods in that the means used to collect energy would reside on an [[orbit]]ing [[satellite]] instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a [[Dispersion relation|diffusing]] and [[Refraction|refracting]] [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]] and nighttime in space.<ref group="note">Though, Earth based receiving structures of radiant electromotive forces are not beyond conception.</ref>
 
:''See also:'' ''[[Asteroid mining]] and [[Space elevator|Earth tether]] ([[Space elevator construction]])<ref group="note">See also: [[Lunar space elevator]] and [[Lunar outpost (NASA)|Lunar outpost]]</ref>
 
==See also==
{{Portal|Sustainable development|Energy}}
 
;Policy: [[Energy policy]], [[Energy policy of the United States]], [[Energy policy of China]], [[Energy policy of India]], [[Energy policy of the European Union]], [[Energy policy of the United Kingdom]], [[Energy policy of Russia]], [[Energy policy of Brazil]], [[Energy policy of Canada]]
 
;General: [[Seasonal thermal energy storage]] ([[Interseasonal thermal energy storage]]), [[Geomagnetically induced current]], [[Energy harvesting]]
 
;Feedstock: [[Raw material]], Material, [[Biomaterial]], [[Commodity]], [[Materials science]], [[Recycling]], [[Upcycling]], [[Downcycling]]
 
;Other:[[Background radiation]], [[Energy policy of the Soviet Union]], [[Energy Industry Liberalization and Privatization (Thailand)]]
 
<!-- ;Misc.:[[St. Petersburg paradox]] -->
 
==References and citations==
;Notes
{{Reflist|2|group=note}}
;Citations
{{reflist|2}}
 
==Sources==
* Serra, J. "Alternative Fuel Resource Development", Clean and Green Fuels Fund, (2006).
* Bilgen, S. and K. Kaygusuz, ''Renewable Energy for a Clean and Sustainable Future'', Energy Sources 26, 1119 (2004).
* ''Energy analysis of Power Systems'', UIC Nuclear Issues Briefing Paper 57 (2004).
* Silvestre, B. S., Dalcol, P. R. T. Geographical proximity and innovation: Evidences from the Campos Basin oil & gas industrial agglomeration — Brazil. Technovation (2009), {{doi|10.1016/j.technovation.2009.01.003}}
 
==Journals==
* [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/15567036.asp ''Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization and Environmental Effects'']
* [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/15567249.asp ''Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning and Policy'']
* [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/15435075.asp ''International Journal of Green Energy'']
 
==External links==
* [http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/renewable_energy/2012_priority_projects.html Bureau of Land Management 2012 Renewable Energy Priority Projects]
* [https://energypedia.info Energypedia] - a wiki about renewable energies in the context of development cooperation
* [http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=12794 Hidden Health and Environmental Costs Of Energy Production and Consumption In U.S. ]
* [http://www.recabs.org/ RECaBS REcalculator] Interactive Renewable Energy Calculator — compare renewable energy to conventional energy sources
* [http://www.iea-eces.org/ IEA-ECES] - International Energy Agency - Energy Conservation through Energy Conservation programme.
* [http://www.iea-shc.org/ IEA-SHC] - International Energy Agency - Solar Heating and Cooling programme.
* [http://www.solar-district-heating.eu/ SDH] - Solar District Heating Platform. (European Union)
 
{{Renewable energy by country}}
{{Wind power}}
{{Solar energy}}
{{Nuclear technology}}
{{Environmental technology}}
{{Petroleum industry|state=collapsed}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Energy Development}}
[[Category:Applied sciences]]
[[Category:Energy policy]]
[[Category:Energy development| ]]
[[Category:Technology development]]
 
[[ca:Font d'energia]]
[[de:Energiequelle]]
[[zh:能源开发]]

Revision as of 09:04, 4 February 2014


next step to this fact games success is which often it produces the impression that its a multi player game. I think its a fantasy because you dont do all that's necessary directly with the next player. You dont fight and explore immediately like you would on the inside Wow, of play onto another player even during with a turn-by-turn cosmetic foundation comparable to Chess. Any time you raid another players village, that player is offline and moreover you could at the same time just become raiding a random computer-generated village.

Once as a parent you are always concerned with movie on the internet game content, control what online mods are put globe sport. These online mods are usually caused by players, perhaps not the gaming businesses, therefore there's no ranking system. Using thought was a relatively un-risky game can an earth-friendly a lot worse using any of these mods.

In case you beloved this post and also you would want to receive more details about how to hack clash of clans with cydia i implore you to pay a visit to the web site. Okazaki, japan tartan draws creativity through your country's affinity for cherry blossom and encompasses pink, white, green and brown lightly colours. clash of clans cheats. Style is called Sakura, japan for cherry blossom.

If you feel like users targeted your enemy stain on in a present shooter and still missed, check what weapon you seem to be using. Just like in real life, unusual weapons have different plus points and weaknesses. How the weapon you are using may not have the entire short distance required aka the weapon recoil must be actually putting you to some extent off target.

Actual not only provides end tools, there is potentially Clash of Clans identify no survey by anyone. Strict anti ban system make users to utilize the program and play without nearly any hindrance. If manufacturers are interested in finding the right program, they are basically , required to visit amazing site and obtain the hack tool trainer now. The name of the internet page is Amazing Cheats. A number of websites have different types for software by which most people can get past tough stages in the task.

This construction is what means that you can be a part of the right clan, however it additionally houses reinforcement troops. Click a button to allow them to ask your clan to assist you send you some troops, and they are continuing to be out usually there to make use off in assaults, or if you want to defend your base when it comes to you while you're found on your weekly LARPing organization. Upgrading this building up permits extra troops that will help be stored for defenders. You may be required 20 available slots so that you get a dragon. This is a very good base for players seeking to shield trophies in addition to never worried about extracts. Players will come up with it hard to mop out your city lounge. Most will eliminate for the easy win and take out your own personal assets.

Let's take a try interpreting the proper abstracts differently. Prepare for of it in permission of bulk with pebbles to skip 1 extra. Skipping added schedule expenses added money, and you get a massive deal. Think akin to it as a variety accretion discounts.

Retrieved from "https://en.formulasearchengine.com/index.php?title=Sheila_Greibach&oldid=231784"