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| {{about|the civil engineer|the baggage handler|John Smeaton (born 1976)}}
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| {{Infobox person
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| |name = John Smeaton
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| |image = John_Smeaton.jpg
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| |caption =Portrait of John Smeaton, with the Eddystone Lighthouse in the background
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| |birth_name =
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| |birth_date = {{birth-date|8 June 1724}}
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| |birth_place = [[Austhorpe]], [[Leeds]], [[England]]
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| |death_date = {{death-date|28 October 1792 }} (aged 68)
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| |death_place = [[Austhorpe]], [[Leeds]], [[England]]
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| |nationality = British
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| |occupation = [[Civil engineer]]
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| '''John Smeaton''', <small>[[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]]</small>, (8 June 1724 – 28 October 1792) was an English [[civil engineer]] responsible for the design of [[bridge]]s, [[canal]]s, [[harbour]]s and [[lighthouse]]s. He was also a capable [[mechanical engineer]] and an eminent [[physicist]]. Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer, and often regarded as the "father of civil engineering".
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| He was associated with the [[Lunar Society]].
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| ==Law and physics==
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| Smeaton was born in [[Austhorpe]], [[Leeds]], England. After studying at [[Leeds Grammar School]] he joined his father's law firm, but left to become a mathematical instrument maker (working with [[Henry Hindley]]), developing, among other instruments, a [[pyrometer]] to study material expansion and a whirling speculum or horizontal top (a maritime [[navigation]] aid).
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| He was elected a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]] in 1753, and in 1759 won the [[Copley Medal]] for his research into the mechanics of [[waterwheel]]s and [[windmill]]s. His 1759 paper "''An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Natural Powers of Water and Wind to Turn Mills and Other Machines Depending on Circular Motion<ref name="Phil. Trans. 1759 51:100-174; doi:10.1098/rstl.1759.0019">{{cite journal|last=Smeaton|first=Mr J|title=An Experimental Enquiry concerning the Natural Powers of Water and Wind to Turn Mills, and Other Machines, Depending on a Circular Motion.|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|year=1759|pages=100–174|url=http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/51/100.full.pdf|accessdate=30 January 2012}}</ref>"'' addressed the relationship between pressure and velocity for objects moving in air (Smeaton noted that the table doing so was actually contributed by "my friend Mr Rouse" "an ingenious gentleman of Harborough, Leicestershire" and calculated on the basis of Rouse's experiments), and his concepts were subsequently developed to devise the 'Smeaton Coefficient'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Dictionary/Smeaton/DI75.htm |title=Centennial of flight: Smeaton's Coefficient |publisher=centennialofflight.net |date= |accessdate=2010-05-31}}</ref> Smeaton's water wheel experiments were conducted on a small scale model with which he tested various configurations over a period of seven years.<ref>
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| {{cite book
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| |title=The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention
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| |last1=Rosen
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| |first1=William
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| |authorlink=
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| |coauthors=
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| |year= 2012 |publisher = University Of Chicago Press
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| |location=
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| |isbn= 978-0226726342 |pages=127
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| | postscript = <!--None-->}}
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| </ref> The resulting increasing efficiency in water power contributed to the Industrial Revolution.
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| Over the period 1759-1782 he performed a series of further experiments and measurements on waterwheels that led him to support and champion the ''[[vis viva]]'' theory of German [[Gottfried Leibniz]], an early formulation of [[conservation of energy]]. This led him into conflict with members of the academic establishment who rejected Leibniz's theory, believing it inconsistent with Sir [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[conservation of momentum]].
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| ==Civil engineering==
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| [[Image:Smeaton's Lighthouse00.jpg|thumb|right|120px|<center>Smeaton's Lighthouse</center>]]
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| Recommended by the Royal Society, Smeaton designed the third [[Eddystone Lighthouse]] (1755–59). He pioneered the use of '[[hydraulic lime]]' (a form of [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]] which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. His lighthouse remained in use until 1877 when the rock underlying the structure's foundations had begun to erode; it was dismantled and partially rebuilt at [[Plymouth Hoe]] where it is known as [[Smeaton's Tower]]. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern [[cement]], because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain "hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of [[Portland cement]]. Portland cement led to the re-emergence of [[concrete]] as a modern building material, largely due to Smeaton's influence.
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| [[File:Smeaton dovetailing.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Cross section of the Eddystone Lighthouse showing the method of dovetailing]]
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| [[File:Perth Bridge, Perth.jpg|thumb|right|[[Perth Bridge]], over the Tay]]
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| Deciding that he wanted to focus on the lucrative field of civil engineering, he commenced an extensive series of commissions, including:
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| * the [[Calder and Hebble Navigation]] (1758–70)
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| * [[Coldstream Bridge]] over the [[River Tweed]] (1762–67)
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| * Improvements to the [[River Lee Navigation]] (1765–70)
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| * [[Smeaton's Bridge|Perth Bridge]] over the [[River Tay]] in [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] (1766–71)
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| * [[Ripon Canal]] (1766–1773)
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| * Smeaton's [[Viaduct]], which carries the [[A616 road]] (part of the original Great North Road) over the [[River Trent]] between [[Newark, England|Newark]] and [[South Muskham]] in [[Nottinghamshire]] (1768–70)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biffvernon.freeserve.co.uk/smeaton's_viaduct.htm |title=Biff Vernon: "Smeaton's viaduct" |publisher=Biffvernon.freeserve.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2010-05-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/134856 |title=Geograph Photo |publisher=Geograph.org.uk |date=2006-03-10 |accessdate=2010-05-31}}</ref>
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| * the [[Forth and Clyde Canal]] from [[Grangemouth]] to [[Glasgow]] (1768–77)
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| * [[Banff, Scotland|Banff]] harbour (1770–75)
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| * [[Aberdeen]] bridge (1775–80)
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| * [[Peterhead]] harbour (1775)
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| * [[Alston, Cumbria#Nent Force level|Nent Force Level]] (1776–77)
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| * Harbour works at [[Ramsgate]] (retention basin 1776-83; jetty 1788-1792)
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| * [[Hexham]] bridge (1777–90)
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| * the [[Birmingham and Fazeley Canal]] (1782–89)
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| *[[St Austell]]'s [[Charlestown, Cornwall|Charlestown]] harbour in [[Cornwall]] (1792)
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| [[File:charlestown harbour.jpg|thumb|right|The impounded harbour at Charlestown, Cornwall]]
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| Because of his expertise in engineering, Smeaton was called to testify in court for a case related to the silting-up of the harbour at [[Wells-next-the-Sea]] in [[Norfolk]] in 1782: he is considered to be the first [[expert witness]] to appear in an English court. He also acted as a consultant on the disastrous 63-year-long New Harbour at [[Rye, East Sussex|Rye]], designed to combat the silting of the port of [[Winchelsea]]. The project is now known informally as "Smeaton's Harbour", but despite the name his involvement was limited and occurred more than 30 years after work on the harbour commenced.<ref name="ryemuseum">[http://www.ryemuseum.co.uk/index.php/2009/02/smeatons-harbour/ Rye Museum website]</ref>
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| ==Mechanical engineer==
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| [[File:Chimney Mill, Newcastle.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Chimney Mill, Newcastle upon Tyne, now converted into a clubhouse]]
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| Employing his skills as a mechanical engineer, he devised a [[water engine]] for the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Royal Botanic Gardens]] at [[Kew]] in 1761 and a watermill at [[Alston, Cumbria|Alston]], [[Cumbria]] in 1767 (he is credited by some with inventing the cast iron axle shaft for waterwheels). In 1782 he built the Chimney Mill at [[Spital Tongues]] in [[Newcastle upon Tyne]], the first 5-sailed [[smock mill]] in Britain. He also improved [[Thomas Newcomen]]'s [[Newcomen engine|atmospheric engine]], erecting one at Chacewater mine, [[Wheal Busy]], in Cornwall in 1775.
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| In 1789 Smeaton applied an idea by [[Denis Papin]], by using a force pump to maintain the pressure and fresh air inside a [[diving bell]].<ref name=davis1955>{{cite book |author=Davis, RH |title=Deep Diving and Submarine Operations |year=1955 |edition=6th |publisher=[[Siebe Gorman|Siebe Gorman & Company Ltd]] |location=Tolworth, Surbiton, Surrey |page=693 |authorlink=Robert Davis (inventor) }}</ref><ref name=dive_hx>{{cite journal |last=Acott |first=C. |title=A brief history of diving and decompression illness. |journal=South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal |volume=29 |issue=2 |year=1999 |issn=0813-1988 |oclc=16986801 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6004 |accessdate=2009-03-17 }}</ref> This bell, built for the Hexham bridge project, was not intended for underwater work, but in 1790 the design was updated to enable it to be used underwater on the breakwater at Ramsgate Harbour.<ref name=dive_hx/> Smeaton is also credited with explaining the fundamental differences and benefits of overshot versus undershot [[water wheel]]s.
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| Smeaton experimented with the Newcomen steam engine and made marked improvements around the time James Watt was building his first engines (ca. late 1770s).<ref>[http://www.engineering-timelines.com/who/Smeaton_J/smeatonJohn10.asp John Smeaton- Engineering Timeline]</ref>
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| ==Legacy==
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| Highly regarded by other engineers, he contributed to the [[Lunar Society]] and founded the [[Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers|Society of Civil Engineers]] in 1771. He coined the term ''civil engineers'' to distinguish them from military engineers graduating from the [[Royal Military Academy at Woolwich]]. The Society was a forerunner of the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]], established in 1818, and was renamed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers in 1830.
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| His pupils included canal engineer [[William Jessop]] and architect and engineer [[Benjamin Latrobe]].
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| He died after suffering a stroke while walking in the garden of his family home at Austhorpe, and was buried in the parish church at [[Whitkirk]], West Yorkshire.
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| [[File:Johm Smeaton Viaduct 2013.JPG|thumb|right|Signs on the John Smeaton Viaduct]]
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| [[John Smeaton Community College]], a secondary school in the suburbs of Leeds adjacent to the [[Pendas Fields]] estate near Austhorpe, is named after Smeaton. He is also commemorated at the [[University of Plymouth]], where the Mathematics and Technology Department is housed in a building named after him. A viaduct in the final stage of the [[Leeds Inner Ring Road]], opened in 2008, was named after him.
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| He is mentioned in the song "[[I Predict a Riot]]" (as a symbol of a more dignified and peaceful epoch in Leeds history; and in reference to a Junior School House at Leeds Grammar School, which lead singer Ricky Wilson attended) by the indie rock band [[Kaiser Chiefs]], who are natives of Leeds.
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| ===Smeaton coefficient===
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| The lift equation used by the [[Wright brothers]] was due to John Smeaton. It has the form:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wright.nasa.gov/airplane/liftold.html |title=Lift equation of the early 1900s |publisher=Wright.nasa.gov |date=2010-03-25 |accessdate=2010-05-31}}</ref>
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| :<math>L = k V^2 A C_l \,</math>
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| where:
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| :<math>L</math> is the lift
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| :<math>k</math> is the Smeaton coefficient- 0.005 (the drag in pounds weight of a {{convert|1|sqft|m2|adj=on}} plate at 1 mph) was the value as determined by Smeaton,<ref>probably, strictly speaking, Rouse</ref> later corrected to 0.0033 by the Wright brothers
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| :<math>C_l</math> is the [[lift coefficient]] (the lift relative to the drag of a plate of the same area)
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| :<math>A</math> is the area in square feet
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| The Wright brothers determined with [[wind tunnel]]s that the Smeaton coefficient was incorrect and should have been 0.0033.<ref name=Dodson>{{cite journal |author=Dodson, MG |title=An Historical and Applied Aerodynamic Study of the Wright Brothers' Wind Tunnel Test Program and Application to Successful Manned Flight |journal=[[United States Naval Academy|US Naval Academy]] Technical Report |volume=USNA-334 |year=2005 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/3585 |accessdate=2009-03-17}}</ref> In modern analysis, the [[Lift coefficient]] is normalized by the [[dynamic pressure]] instead of the Smeaton coefficient.
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| ==See also==
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| {{Portal|UK Waterways}}
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| * [[Canals of the United Kingdom]]
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| * [[History of the British canal system]]
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| ==External links==
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| {{Commons}}
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| * {{Structurae person|id=d000108|name=John Smeaton}}
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| * [http://sine.ncl.ac.uk/view_structure_information.asp?struct_id=1287 Structure Details: Chimney Mill]
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| * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A918371 Smeaton's profile at the BBC]
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| * [http://www.aviation-history.com/early/smeaton.htm John Smeaton: The Aviation History Online Museum]
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| * [http://secretlivesofobjects.blogspot.com/2010/04/john-smeatons-model-for-foundation-of.html John Smeaton's model for the foundation of the Eddystone lighthouse (Leeds Museums and Galleries "Secret Life of Objects" blog)]
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| {{Copley Medallists 1751-1800}}
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| {{Authority control|VIAF=19790673}}
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| {{Persondata<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
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| |NAME= Smeaton, John
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| |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
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| |SHORT DESCRIPTION= [[Civil engineer]]
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| |DATE OF BIRTH= June 8, 1724
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| |PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Austhorpe]], [[Leeds]], [[England]]
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| |DATE OF DEATH= October 28, 1792
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| |PLACE OF DEATH= [[Austhorpe]], [[Leeds]], [[England]]
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| }}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Smeaton, John}}
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| [[Category:1724 births]]
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| [[Category:1792 deaths]]
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| [[Category:English civil engineers]]
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| [[Category:Bridge engineers]]
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| [[Category:Canal engineers]]
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| [[Category:Cement]]
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| [[Category:Concrete pioneers]]
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| [[Category:Lighthouse builders]]
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| [[Category:People of the Industrial Revolution]]
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| [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
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| [[Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal]]
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| [[Category:People educated at Leeds Grammar School]]
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| [[Category:People from Leeds]]
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| [[Category:Deaths from stroke]]
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| [[Category:Members of the Lunar Society]]
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| [[Category:18th-century English people]]
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| [[Category:English mechanical engineers]]
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| [[Category:Harbour engineers]]
| |
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