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| '''Zero-point energy''', also called ''quantum vacuum zero-point energy'', is the lowest possible [[energy]] that a [[quantum mechanical]] [[physical system]] may have; it is the energy of its [[ground state]]. All quantum mechanical systems undergo fluctuations even in their ground state and have an associated zero-point energy, a consequence of their [[wave]]-like nature. The [[uncertainty principle]] requires every physical system to have a zero-point energy greater than the minimum of its classical [[potential well]]. This results in motion even at [[absolute zero]]. For example, [[liquid helium]] does not freeze under atmospheric pressure at any temperature because of its zero-point energy.
| | Hello and welcome. My name is Numbers Wunder. For a whilst I've been in South Dakota and my mothers and fathers reside nearby. Since she was 18 she's been operating as a meter reader but she's always needed her own company. Body building is what my family members and I appreciate.<br><br>Feel free to surf to my website; [http://unblockedflashgames.com/members/lidakmhswk/activity/228798/ unblockedflashgames.com] |
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| The concept of zero-point energy was developed in Germany by [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Otto Stern]] in 1913, as a corrective term added to a zero-grounded formula developed by [[Max Planck]] in 1900.<ref name=laidler/><ref name=einstein1913/> The term ''zero-point energy'' [[Calque|originates]] from the German ''Nullpunktsenergie.''<ref name=laidler/><ref name=einstein1913/> An alternative form of the German term is ''Nullpunktenergie'' (without the "s").
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| [[Vacuum energy]] is the zero-point energy of all the [[field (physics)|field]]s in space, which in the [[Standard Model]] includes the [[electromagnetic field]], other [[gauge field]]s, [[fermionic field]]s, and the [[Higgs field]]. It is the energy of the [[vacuum state|vacuum]], which in [[quantum field theory]] is defined not as empty space but as the ground state of the fields. In [[physical cosmology|cosmology]], the vacuum energy is one possible explanation for the [[cosmological constant]].<ref>
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| {{cite journal
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| |last=Rugh |first=S. E.
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| |last2=Zinkernagel |first2=H.
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| |title=The Quantum Vacuum and the Cosmological Constant Problem
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| |year=2002
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| |pages=663–705
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| |volume=33
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| |journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics, vol.
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| |arxiv=hep-th/0012253
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| |doi=10.1016/S1355-2198(02)00033-3
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| |issue=4
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| }}</ref> A related term is ''zero-point field'', which is the lowest energy state of a particular field.<ref>
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| {{cite book
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| |last=Gribbin |first=J.
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| |year=1998
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| |chapter=
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| |title=Q is for Quantum: An Encyclopedia of Particle Physics
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| |page=
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| |publisher=[[Touchstone Books]]
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| |isbn=0-684-86315-4
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| }}</ref>
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| ==History==
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| In 1900, [[Max Planck]] derived the formula for the energy of a single ''energy radiator'', e.g., a vibrating atomic unit:<ref>
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| {{cite journal
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| |last=Planck |first=M
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| |year=1900
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| |title=Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der Energieverteilung im Normalspektrum
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| |journal=[[Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft]]
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| |volume=2 |pages=237–245
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| |bibcode=
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| |doi=
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| }}</ref>
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| :<math> \epsilon = \frac{h\nu}{ e^{\frac{h\nu}{kT}}-1}</math>
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| where <math>h</math> is [[Planck's constant]], <math>\nu</math> is the [[frequency]], ''k'' is [[Boltzmann's constant]], and ''T'' is the absolute [[temperature]].
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| Then in 1913, using this formula as a basis, [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Otto Stern]] published a paper of great significance in which they suggested for the first time the existence of a residual energy that all oscillators have at absolute zero. They called this residual energy ''Nullpunktsenergie'' (German), later [[Calque|translated]] as ''zero-point energy''. They carried out an analysis of the specific heat of hydrogen gas at low temperature, and concluded that the data are best represented if the vibrational energy is<ref name=laidler>
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| {{cite book
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| |last=Laidler |first=K. J.
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| |year=2001
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| |title=The World of Physical Chemistry
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| |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]
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| |page=324
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| |isbn=0-19-855919-4
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| }}</ref><ref name=einstein1913>
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| {{cite journal
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| |last1=Einstein |first1=A.
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| |last2=Stern |first2=O.
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| |year=1913
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| |title=Einige Argumente für die Annahme einer molekularen Agitation beim absoluten Nullpunkt
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| |journal=Annalen der Physik
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| |volume=40 |issue=3 |page=551
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| |bibcode=1913AnP...345..551E
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| |doi=10.1002/andp.19133450309
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| }}</ref>
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| :<math> \epsilon = \frac{h\nu}{ e^{\frac{h\nu}{kT}}-1} + \frac{h\nu}{2}</math>
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| According to this expression, an atomic system at [[absolute zero]] retains an energy of ½''hν''.
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| ==Relation to the uncertainty principle==
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| Zero-point energy is fundamentally related to the [[Heisenberg uncertainty principle]].<ref name="Heisenberg_1927">{{Cite journal|author=W. Heisenberg|title=Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik|journal =Zeitschrift für Physik|volume=43|issue=3|year=1927|pages=172–198|doi=10.1007/BF01397280|url=[http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/papers/corr155.1.html Original work as HTML]|bibcode = 1927ZPhy...43..172H|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}</ref> Roughly speaking, the uncertainty principle states that complementary variables (such as a particle's position and momentum, or a field's value and derivative at a point in space) cannot simultaneously be defined precisely by any given quantum state. In particular, there cannot be a state in which the system sits motionless at the bottom of its potential well, for then its position and momentum would both be completely determined to arbitrarily great precision. Therefore, the lowest-energy state (the ground state) of the system must have a distribution in position and momentum that satisfies the uncertainty principle, which implies its energy must be greater than the minimum of the potential well.
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| Near the bottom of a [[potential well]], the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]] of a system (the quantum-mechanical [[operator (physics)|operator]] giving its energy) can be approximated as
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| ::<math>\hat{H} = E_0 + \frac{1}{2} k \left(\hat{x} - x_0\right)^2 + \frac{1}{2m} \hat{p}^2</math>
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| where <math>E_0</math> is the minimum of the classical potential well. The uncertainty principle tells us that
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| ::<math>\sqrt{\left\langle \left(\hat{x} - x_0\right)^2 \right\rangle} \sqrt{\left\langle \hat{p}^2 \right\rangle} \geq \frac{\hbar}{2},</math>
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| making the [[expectation value (quantum mechanics)|expectation value]]s of the [[kinetic energy|kinetic]] and [[potential energy|potential]] terms above satisfy
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| ::<math>\left\langle \frac{1}{2} k \left(\hat{x} - x_0\right)^2 \right\rangle \left\langle \frac{1}{2m} \hat{p}^2 \right\rangle \geq \left(\frac{\hbar}{4}\right)^2 \frac{k}{m}.</math>
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| The expectation value of the energy must therefore be at least
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| ::<math>\left\langle \hat{H} \right\rangle \geq E_0 + \frac{\hbar}{2} \sqrt{\frac{k}{m}} = E_0 + \frac{\hbar \omega}{2}</math>
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| where <math>\omega = \sqrt{k/m}</math> is the [[angular frequency]] at which the system oscillates.
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| A more thorough treatment, showing that the energy of the ground state actually is <math>E_0 = \hbar \omega / 2,</math> requires solving for the ground state of the system. See [[quantum harmonic oscillator]] for details.
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| ==Varieties==
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| The concept of zero-point energy occurs in a number of situations.
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| In ordinary quantum mechanics, the zero-point energy is the energy associated with the [[ground state]] of the system. The professional physics literature tends to measure frequency, as denoted by <math>\nu</math> above, using [[angular frequency]], denoted with <math>\omega</math> and defined by <math>\omega</math> = <math>2\pi \nu</math>. This leads to a convention of writing Planck's constant <math>h</math> with a bar through its top (<math>\hbar</math>) to denote the quantity <math>h</math>/<math>2\pi</math>. In those terms, the most famous such example of zero-point energy is <math>E={\hbar\omega / 2}</math> associated with the ground state of the [[quantum harmonic oscillator]]. In quantum mechanical terms, the zero-point energy is the [[expectation value]] of the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]] of the system in the ground state.
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| In [[quantum field theory]], the fabric of space is visualized as consisting of [[field (physics)|fields]], with the field at every point in space and time being a [[quantum harmonic oscillator]], with neighboring oscillators interacting. In this case, one has a contribution of <math>E={\hbar\omega / 2}</math> from every point in space, resulting in a calculation of infinite zero-point energy in any finite volume; this is one reason [[renormalization]] is needed to make sense of quantum field theories. The zero-point energy is again the expectation value of the Hamiltonian; here, however, the phrase [[vacuum expectation value]] is more commonly used, and the energy is called the [[vacuum energy]].
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| In quantum [[perturbation theory]], it is sometimes said that the contribution of [[one-loop]] and multi-loop [[Feynman diagram]]s to [[elementary particle]] [[propagator]]s are the contribution of [[quantum fluctuation|vacuum fluctuation]]s or the zero-point energy to the particle [[mass]]es.
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| ==Experimental observations==
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| A phenomenon that is commonly presented as evidence for the existence of zero-point energy in vacuum is the [[Casimir effect]], proposed in 1948 by [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[physicist]] [[Hendrik Casimir|Hendrik B. G. Casimir]] ([[Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium|Philips Research]]), who considered the quantized [[electromagnetic field]] between a pair of grounded, neutral metal plates. The vacuum energy contains contributions from all wavelengths, except those excluded by the spacing between plates. As the plates draw together, more wavelengths are excluded and the vacuum energy decreases. The decrease in energy means there must be a force doing work on the plates as they move. This force has been measured and found to be in good agreement with the theory. However, there is still some debate on whether vacuum energy is necessary to explain the Casimir effect. [[Robert Jaffe]] of [[MIT]] argues that the Casimir force should not be considered evidence for vacuum energy, since it can be derived in [[quantum electrodynamics|QED]] without reference to vacuum energy by considering charge-current interactions (the radiation-reaction picture).<ref>
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| {{cite journal
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| |last=Jaffe |first=R. L.
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| |year=2005
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| |title=Casimir effect and the quantum vacuum
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| |journal=[[Physical Review D]]
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| |volume=72 |issue=2 |page=021301
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| |arxiv=
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| |bibcode=
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| |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.72.021301
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| }}</ref>
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| The experimentally measured [[Lamb shift]] has been argued to be, in part, a zero-point energy effect.<ref>
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| {{cite journal
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| |last=Hawton |first=M.
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| |year=1993
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| |title=Self-consistent frequencies of the electron-photon system
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| |journal=[[Physical Review A]]
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| |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=1824
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| |arxiv=
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| |bibcode=1993PhRvA..48.1824H
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| |doi=10.1103/PhysRevA.48.1824
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| }}</ref>
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| ==Gravitation and cosmology==
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| {{unsolved|physics|Why doesn't the zero-point energy density of the vacuum change with changes in the volume of the universe? And related to that, why doesn't the large constant zero-point energy density of the [[vacuum]] cause a large [[cosmological constant]]? What cancels it out?}}
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| In [[physical cosmology|cosmology]], the zero-point energy offers an intriguing possibility for explaining the speculative positive values of the proposed [[cosmological constant]].
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| <ref>{{Cite journal
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| |last=Tarkowski |first=W.
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| |year=2004
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| |title=A Toy Model of the Five-Dimensional Universe with the Cosmological Constant
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| |url=http://www.worldscientific.com/doi/pdf/10.1142/S0217751X04019366
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| |journal=[[International Journal of Modern Physics A]]
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| |volume=19 |issue=29 |pages=5051
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| |arxiv= gr-qc/0407024
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| |bibcode= 2004IJMPA..19.5051T
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| |doi= 10.1142/S0217751X04019366
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| }}</ref>
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| In brief, if the energy is "really there", then it should exert a [[gravitational force]].<ref>
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| {{Cite journal
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| |last=Zee |first=A.
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| |year=2008
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| |title=Gravity and Its Mysteries: Some Thoughts and Speculations
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| |url=http://www.cospa.ntu.edu.tw/aappsbulletin/data/18-4/06_Gravity.pdf
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| |journal=[[AAPPS Bulletin]]
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| |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=32
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| |arxiv=
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| |bibcode=
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| |doi=
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| }}</ref> In [[general relativity]], [[mass]] and energy are equivalent; both produce a gravitational field. One obvious difficulty with this association is that the zero-point energy of the vacuum is absurdly large. Naively, it is infinite, because it includes the energy of waves with arbitrarily short wavelengths. But since only ''differences'' in energy are physically measurable, the infinity can be removed by [[renormalization]]. In all practical calculations, this is how the infinity is handled. It is also arguable{{or|date=January 2014}} that undiscovered physics relevant at the [[Planck scale]] reduces or eliminates the energy of waves shorter than the [[Planck length]], making the total zero-point energy finite.{{cn|date=January 2014}}
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| ==Utilization controversy==
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| As a scientific concept, the existence of zero-point energy is not controversial, although the ability to harness it is.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is the 'zero-point energy' (or 'vacuum energy') in quantum physics? Is it really possible that we could harness this energy? |author=Matt Visser |url=http://homepages.mcs.vuw.ac.nz/~visser/general.shtml#what-zpe|newspaper=Phlogistin / Scientific American Magazine|date=3 October 1996
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| |archiveurl=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=follow-up-what-is-the-zer|archivedate= August 18, 1997
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| |accessdate=31 May 2013}}</ref> Over the years, there have been numerous claims of devices capable of extracting usable zero-point energy. None of the claims have ever been confirmed by the scientific community at large, and most of these claims are dismissed either by default, after third-party inspection of such a device or based on disbelief in the viability of a technical design and theoretical corroboration. Current claims to zero-point-energy-based power generation systems are considered [[pseudoscience]] by the scientific community at large <ref name=army>{{cite web|publisher=[[U.S. Army]] [[National Ground Intelligence Center]]|url=http://info.publicintelligence.net/USArmy-ZeroPointEnergy.pdf|title=Zero-Point Energy: Can We Get Something From Nothing?|author=Amber M. Aiken, Ph.D.|quote=Forays into "free energy" inventions and perpetual-motion machines using ZPE are considered by the broader scientific community to be pseudoscience.}}</ref> and skeptics usually dismiss efforts to harness zero-point energy by default.
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| Prominent skeptic [[Martin Gardner]] has called claims of such zero-point-energy-based systems, "as hopeless as past efforts to build [[perpetual motion machine]]s"<ref name=Gardner>[[Martin Gardner]], [http://www.csicop.org/si/show/dr._bearden_vacuum_energy/ "'Dr' Bearden's Vacuum Energy"], ''Skeptical Enquirer'', January/February 2007</ref> ''Perpetual motion machine'' refers to technical designs of machines that can operate indefinitely, optionally with additional output of excessive energy, without any cited input source of energy, which is in violation of the [[laws of thermodynamics]]. Formally, technical designs that claim to harness zero-point energy would not fall into this category, while zero-point energy is claimed as the input source of energy. However, in [[popular science]] it's common{{weasel-inline|date=January 2014}} to disregard whether such a technical claim deviates first and foremost from the laws of thermodynamics, or from the theories of [[quantum mechanics]]. Despite the disconfirming scientific stance, numerous authors have written in favor of the potential of tapping zero-point energy in hypothetical "free energy" technical applications, or even proclaim that such applications already exist, sometimes invoking the [[free energy suppression]] conspiracy theory. Examples of such authors include: Claus Wilhelm Turtur,<ref>{{cite book|author=Claus Wilhelm Turtur |publisher=Bremen Europ. Hochsch.-Verl|title=Conversion of the zero-point energy of the quantum vacuum into classical mechanical energy|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/conversion-of-the-zero-point-energy-of-the-quantum-vacuum-into-classical-mechanical-energy/|archiveurl=http://www.ostfalia.de/cms/de/pws/turtur/images/1_Schrift_03f_englisch.pdf|archivedate=2010}}</ref> Jeane Manning, Joel Garbon,<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeane Manning, Joel Garbon|publisher=Amber Bridge Books|title=Breakthrough power : how quantum-leap new energy inventions can transform our world|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/breakthrough-power-how-quantum-leap-new-energy-inventions-can-transform-our-world/}}</ref> John Bedini,<ref>{{cite book|author=John Bedini, Tom Bearden
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| |publisher=Cheniere Press|title=Free energy generation : circuits & schematics|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/free-energy-generation-circuits-schematics/}}</ref> Tom Bearden,<ref>{{cite book|author=Tom Bearden |publisher=Cheniere Press|title=Energy from the vacuum : concepts & principles|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/energy-from-the-vacuum-concepts-principles/}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Tom Bearden|publisher=New Science Ideas|title=Clash of the geniuses : inventing the impossible|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/clash-of-the-geniuses-inventing-the-impossible/}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Tom Bearden|publisher=Ft. Belvoir Defense Technical Information Center|title=Virtual State Engineering and Its Implications.|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/virtual-state-engineering-and-its-implications/}}</ref> Thomas Valone,<ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Valone|publisher=Integrity Research Institute|title=Practical conversion of zero-point energy : feasibility study of the extraction of zero-point energy from the quantum vacuum for the performance of useful work
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| |url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/practical-conversion-of-zero-point-energy-feasibility-study-of-the-extraction-of-zero-point-energy-from-the-quantum-vacuum-for-the-performance-of-useful-work/
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| }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Valone|publisher=Integrity Research Institute|title=Zero point energy : the fuel of the future|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/zero-point-energy-the-fuel-of-the-future/
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| }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Valone|publisher=Integrity Research Institute|title=Future energy : proceedings of the First International Conference on Future Energy|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/future-energy-proceedings-of-the-first-international-conference-on-future-energy/}}</ref> Moray B King,<ref>{{cite book
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| |author=Moray B King|publisher=Adventures Unlimited|title=Tapping the zero-point energy : how free energy and anti-gravity might be possible with today's physics|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/tapping-the-zero-point-energy-how-free-energy-and-anti-gravity-might-be-possible-with-todays-physics/}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Moray B King|publisher=Adventures Unlimited|title=Quest for zero point energy : engineering principles for 'free energy' inventions|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/quest-for-zero-point-energy-engineering-principles-for-free-energy-inventions/}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Moray B King|publisher=Adventures Unlimited
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| |title=The energy machine of T. Henry Moray : zero-point energy & pulsed plasma physics |url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/energy-machine-of-t-henry-moray-zero-point-energy-pulsed-plasma-physics/
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| }}</ref> Christopher Toussaint, Bill Jenkins,<ref>{{cite book|author=Christopher Toussaint, Bill Jenkins
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| |publisher=Lightworks Audio & Video|title=Free energy : the race to zero point|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/free-energy-the-race-to-zero-point/}}</ref> [[Nick Cook]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Nick Cook|publisher=Broadway Books
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| |title=The hunt for zero point : inside the classified world of antigravity technology |url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/hunt-for-zero-point-inside-the-classified-world-of-antigravity-technology/
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| }}</ref> and William James.<ref>{{cite book|author=William James|publisher=Bloomington|title=Zero point : power of the gods|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/zero-point-power-of-the-gods/}}</ref>
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| In quantum theory, zero-point energy is a minimum energy below which a [[thermodynamic system]] can never go.<ref name=army/> Thus, none of this energy can be withdrawn without altering the system to a different form in which the system has a lower zero-point energy. One of the hypotheses that claims that zero-point energy is infinite is [[stochastic electrodynamics]]. In it, the zero-point field is viewed as simply a classical background isotropic noise wave field which excites all systems present in the vacuum and thus is ''responsible for'' their minimum-energy or "ground" states. The requirement of [[Lorentz covariance|Lorentz invariance]] at a statistical level then implies that the energy density spectrum must increase with the third power of frequency, implying infinite energy density when integrated over all frequencies.<ref>{{cite book|last=de la Peña |first=L.|last2=Cetto |first2=A. M.|year=1995|title=The Quantum Dice: An Introduction to Stochastic Electrodynamics
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| |isbn=978-0-7923-3818-5}}</ref>
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| According to a NASA contractor report, "the concept of accessing a significant amount of useful energy from the ZPE gained much credibility when a major article on this topic was published in Aviation Week & Space Technology (March 1st, 2004), a leading aerospace industry magazine".<ref>{{cite book|publisher=[[NASA]]|title=Advanced Energetics for Aeronautical Applications: Volume II|url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20050170447_2005172301.pdf}}</ref>
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| The calculation that underlies the [[Casimir experiment]], a calculation based on the formula predicting infinite vacuum energy, shows the zero-point energy of a system consisting of a vacuum between two plates will decrease at a finite rate as the two plates are drawn together. The vacuum energies are predicted to be infinite, but the changes are predicted to be finite. Casimir combined the projected rate of change in zero-point energy with the principle of conservation of energy to predict a force on the plates. The predicted force, which is very small and was experimentally measured to be within 5% of its predicted value, is finite.<ref>{{cite web|title=What is the Casimir Effect?|url=http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Quantum/casimir.html
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| }}</ref> Even though the zero-point energy is theoretically infinite, there is as yet no evidence to suggest that infinite amounts of zero-point energy are available for use, that zero-point energy can be withdrawn for free, or that zero-point energy can be used in violation of [[conservation of energy]].<ref>{{cite journal
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| |journal=[[Scientific American]]|date=18 August 1997|url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=follow-up-what-is-the-zer|title=FOLLOW-UP: What is the 'zero-point energy' (or 'vacuum energy') in quantum physics? Is it really possible that we could harness this energy?}}</ref>
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| In the contrary of energy generation, a field of study where there is a somewhat realistic potential for the utilization of zero-point energy might be in the design of extremely small scale devices like [[Microelectromechanical systems|MEMS]] and [[Nanoelectromechanical system|NEMS]] or in distant futuristic propulsion technology of extremely long-distance space-travel.<ref name=army/>
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| A document released by the [[National Ground Intelligence Center|NGIC]] shows there is ongoing worldwide research into zero-point energy, particular in China, Germany, Russia and Brazil. An analyst of the [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]] has indicated that research into successfully harnessing zero-point energy for energy generation purposes is a serious concern inside the intelligence community.<ref name=army/>
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| ==In popular culture==
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| In 1986, [[Arthur C. Clarke]] published a science fiction novel called ''[[The Songs of Distant Earth]]'' which depicts a [[starship]] called ''Magellan'' that is powered by the quantum vacuum zero point energy.
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| In [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]]/[[Pixar Animation Studios|Pixar]]'s animated film ''[[The Incredibles]]'', the main villain [[Syndrome_Character#Syndrome|Syndrome]] refers to his weapons as using zero-point energy.<ref>{{cite web|title=Buddy Pine character profile|url=http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0003832/|accessdate=5 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Zero Point Energy|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_wEVBjP3Kk8|accessdate=5 September 2012}}</ref> The fan fiction community devoted to the character is named "Zero Point" because of this.<ref>{{cite web|title=Zero Point at FanFiction.net|url=http://www.fanfiction.net/community/Zero_Point/41215/|accessdate=5 September 2012}}</ref>
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| In the critically acclaimed game series from [[Valve Corporation]], [[Half-Life (series)|Half-Life]], a "zero-point energy field manipulator" (popularly known as 'gravity gun'), meant to handle sensitive, anomalous and hazardous materials, is used as both a weapon to throw objects at enemies in high speeds, as a primary attack, and a tool to solve physics puzzles consisting in moving objects of considerable weight.
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| In [[Nintendo]]'s ''[[Star Fox (series)|Star Fox]]'' series, there are mentions of a 'G-Diffusion' system. The so-called 'G-diffusion' is an experimental power system used in the game's starfighters that reduces gravity forces on the pilot and provides a respectable power source for shields and propulsion, using advanced Zero-point energy technology.
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| Within the ''[[Stargate]]'' franchise the race of beings known as The Ancients who created the Stargate devices are also responsible for developing a crystalline energy source that contains a miniature universe from which zero point energy is extracted. Within the canon of both [[Stargate SG-1]] and [[Stargate Atlantis]] Zero Point Modules (a.k.a. ZPMs), as they're called, are responsible for producing orders of magnitude greater power than any other known form of energy output in the universe. Three of these were capable of powering the defensive shield on Atlantis, which is roughly the size of Manhattan, while it lay on the ocean floor for over 10,000 years.
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| In the ''[[Star Trek]]'' franchise, [[quantum torpedoes]], which are first introduced in the ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine|Deep Space Nine]]'' episode "[[Defiant (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine)|Defiant]]",<ref>{{cite episode|title=[[Defiant (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine)|Defiant]]|series=[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]|season=3|number=9|airdate=November 21, 1994|network=[[broadcast syndication]]}}</ref> utilize zero-point energy in their warheads, according to the ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine Technical Manual]]''.
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| Larry Niven's ''[[Known Space]]'' series of novels features a planetary drive that uses an 'asymmetric force to create a propulsion ramp by tapping the zero-point energy of the vacuum' that is utilized by the Puppeteers to steer their planets out of harm's way from the explosion of the galactic core.
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| ==Notes==
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| {{reflist|2}}
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| ==Bibliography==
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| |year=1967
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| |title=Concepts of Modern Physics
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| }}
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| * {{cite journal
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| |year=1910
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| |title=On a theorem of the probability calculus and its application to the theory of radiation
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| |bibcode=1910AnP...338.1096E
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| |ref=Einstein-Hopf-1910a
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| * {{cite journal
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| |title=Statistical investigation of a resonator' s motion in a radiation field
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| *{{cite journal
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| |title=Einige Argumente für die Annahme einer molekularen Agitation beim absoluten Nullpunkt
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| |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=393–414
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| |arxiv=gr-qc/0009036
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| }}
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| * {{cite book
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| |year=2000
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| |title=The Quantum Theory of Light
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| |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]
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| |edition=3rd
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| |isbn=0-19-850176-5
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| }}
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| * {{cite book
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| |last=Milonni |first=P. W.
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| |year=1994
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| |title=The Quantum Vacuum: An Introduction to Quantum Electrodynamics
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| |publisher=[[Academic Press]]
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| |isbn=0-12-498080-5
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| }}
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| * {{cite journal
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| |last=Nernst |first=W.
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| |year=1916
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| |title=Über einen Versuch, von quantentheoretischen Betrachtungen zur Annahme stetiger Energieänderungen zurückzukehren
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| |journal=[[Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft]]
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| |volume=18 |page=83
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| |bibcode=
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| |doi=
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| }}
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| * {{cite book
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| |year=1991
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| |title=The Philosophy of Vacuum
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| |editor1-last=Saunders |editor1-first=S.
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| |editor2-last=Brown |editor2-first=H. R.
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| |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]
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| }}
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| *{{cite book
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| |last1=Rafelski |first1=J.
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| |last2=Muller |first2=B.
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| |year=1985
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| |title=The Structured Vacuum: Thinking about nothing
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| |url=http://www.physics.arizona.edu/~rafelski/Books/StructVacuumE.pdf
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| |publisher=[[Harri Deutsch]]
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| |isbn=3-87144-889-3
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| }}
| |
| * {{cite journal
| |
| |last=Boyer |first=T. H.
| |
| |year=1968
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| |title=Quantum Electromagnetic Zero-Point Energy of a Conducting Spherical Shell and the Casimir Model for a Charged Particle
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| |url=http://www.mit.edu/~kardar/research/seminars/Casimir/PR-Boyer68.pdf
| |
| |journal=[[Physical Review]]
| |
| |volume=174 |issue=5 |page=13
| |
| |bibcode= 1968PhRv..174.1764B
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| |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.174.1764
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| }}
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| * {{cite journal
| |
| |last=Yablonovitch |first=E.
| |
| |year=1989
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| |title=Accelerating Reference Frame for Electromagnetic Waves in a Rapidly Growing Plasma: Unruh-Davies-Fulling-DeWitt Radiation and the Nonadiabatic Casimir Effect
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| |url=http://www.ee.ucla.edu/~photon/pubs/ey1989prl6215.pdf
| |
| |journal=[[Physical Review Letters]]
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| |volume=62 |issue=15 |pages=1742–1745
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| |arxiv=
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| |bibcode=1989PhRvL..62.1742Y
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| |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.62.1742
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| |pmid=10039756
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| }}
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| ==External links==
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| {{Spoken Wikipedia|Zero-point_energy.ogg|2006-12-09}}
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| * [http://van.physics.uiuc.edu/qa/listing.php?id=1256 Zero-point energy?] "Ask the Van" popular science FAQ at [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign|University of Illinois]].
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| * Philip Yam, "[http://www.padrak.com/ine/ZPESCIAM.html Exploiting Zero-point Energy]", ''Scientific American Magazine'', December 1997, pp. 82–85.
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| * Calphysics Institute "[http://www.calphysics.org/zpe.html Zero Point Energy and Zero Point Field]"
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Zero-Point Energy}}
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| [[Category:Concepts in physics]]
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| [[Category:Energy (physics)]]
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| [[Category:Fringe physics]]
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| [[Category:Quantum field theory]]
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| [[Category:Perpetual motion]]
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