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| {{Proofreader needed|Louis de Broglie|fr}}
| | == e anche Cinturones Hermes == |
| {{Infobox scientist
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| | name = Louis de Broglie
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| | image = Broglie Big.jpg
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| | image_size = 180px
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| | birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1892|8|15}}
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| | birth_place = [[Dieppe, France]]
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| | death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|1987|3|19|1892|8|15}}
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| | death_place = [[Louveciennes]], [[France]]
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| | nationality = French
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| | field = [[Physics]]
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| | work_institution = [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]]<br> [[University of Paris]]
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| | alma_mater = [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]]
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| | doctoral_advisor = [[Paul Langevin]]
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| | doctoral_students = [[Bernard d'Espagnat]]<br/>[[Jean-Pierre Vigier]]<br/>[[Alexandru Proca]]
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| | known_for = Wave nature of [[electrons]]<br />[[De Broglie–Bohm theory]]<br/>[[Matter wave|de Broglie wavelength]]
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| | prizes = [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (1929)
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| }}
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| '''Louis-Victor-Pierre-Raymond, 7th duc de Broglie''', ({{IPAc-en|d|ə|ˈ|b|r|ɔɪ}}; {{IPA-fr|də bʁœj|lang|De Broglie.ogg}}; 15 August 1892 – 19 March 1987) was a [[French people|French]] [[physicist]] who made groundbreaking contributions to [[quantum theory]]. In his 1924 PhD thesis he postulated the wave nature of [[electrons]] and suggested that all matter has wave properties. This concept is known as [[wave-particle duality]] or the [[Matter wave|de Broglie hypothesis]]. He won the [[Nobel Prize for Physics]] in 1929. The wave-like behaviour of particles discovered by de Broglie was used by [[Erwin Schrödinger]] in his formulation of [[Schrödinger equation|wave mechanics]]. Louis de Broglie was the sixteenth member elected to occupy [[List of members of the Académie française#Seat 1|seat 1]] of the [[Académie française]] in 1944, and served as Perpetual Secretary of the [[French Academy of Sciences]].<ref>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Broglie}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author= | title=History of International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science | url=http://www.iaqms.org/history.php | publisher=IAQMS | date= | accessdate=2010-03-08}}</ref>
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| ==Biography ==
| | <li>[http://sz-jiazhou.com/news/html/?417735.html http://sz-jiazhou.com/news/html/?417735.html]</li> |
| Louis de Broglie was born to a noble family in [[Dieppe, France|Dieppe]], [[Seine-Maritime]], younger son of [[Victor, 5th duc de Broglie]]. He became the 7th [[duc de Broglie]] upon the death without heir in 1960 of his older brother, [[Maurice, 6th duc de Broglie]], also a physicist. He did not marry. When he died in [[Louveciennes]], he was succeeded as [[duke]] by a distant cousin, [[Victor-François, 8th duc de Broglie]].
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| | | <li>[http://bbs.920yl.net/forum.php?mod=forumdisplay&fid=98&filter=typeid&typeid=34 http://bbs.920yl.net/forum.php?mod=forumdisplay&fid=98&filter=typeid&typeid=34]</li> |
| De Broglie and his colleagues had intended a career in [[humanities]], and received his first degree in [[history]]. Afterwards, though, he turned his attention toward mathematics and physics and received a degree in physics. With the outbreak of the [[World War I|First World War]] in 1914, he offered his services to the army in the development of [[radio]] communications.
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| | | <li>[http://netburst.org/index.php?site=polls&pollID=3 http://netburst.org/index.php?site=polls&pollID=3]</li> |
| His 1924 ''Recherches sur la théorie des quanta'' (Research on the Theory of the Quanta), introduced his theory of electron waves. This included the [[wave–particle duality]] theory of matter, based on the work of [[Max Planck]] and [[Albert Einstein]] on light. The thesis examiners, unsure of the material, passed his thesis to Einstein for evaluation who endorsed his wave–particle duality proposal wholeheartedly; de Broglie was awarded his doctorate. This research culminated in the [[Matter wave|de Broglie hypothesis]] stating that ''any moving particle or object had an associated wave''. De Broglie thus created a new field in physics, the ''mécanique ondulatoire,'' or wave mechanics, uniting the physics of energy (wave) and matter (particle). For this he won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1929.
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| | | <li>[http://chancegardner.backstagemamas.com/guestbook/index.php?entry=22531 http://chancegardner.backstagemamas.com/guestbook/index.php?entry=22531]</li> |
| In his later career, de Broglie worked to develop a [[causality (physics)|causal]] explanation of wave mechanics, in opposition to the wholly [[probabilistic]] models which dominate [[quantum mechanical]] theory; it was refined by [[David Bohm]] in the 1950s. The theory has since been known as the [[De Broglie–Bohm theory]].
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| In addition to strictly scientific work, de Broglie thought and wrote about the [[philosophy of science]], including the value of modern scientific discoveries.
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| De Broglie became a member of the [[Académie des sciences]] in 1933, and was the academy's perpetual secretary from 1942. He was asked to join ''Le Conseil de l'Union Catholique des Scientifiques Francais''; however, he declined. This was due to the fact that he was non-religious.<ref>{{cite book|title=Quantum Mechanics at the Crossroads: New Perspectives From History, Philosophy And Physics|year=2007|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783540326632|coauthors=James Evans, Alan S. Thorndike|accessdate=14 April 2012|page=71|quote=Asked to join Le Conseil de l'Union Catholique des Scientifiques<!-- the source has "Sceintifiques", but that is a typo --> Français, Louis declined because, he said, he had ceased the religious practices of his youth.}}</ref>
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| On 12 October 1944, he was elected to the [[Académie française]], replacing mathematician [[Émile Picard]]. Because of the deaths and imprisonments of Académie members during the occupation and other effects of the war, the Académie was unable to meet the quorum of twenty members for his election; due to the exceptional circumstances, however, his unanimous election by the seventeen members present was accepted. In an event unique in the history of the Académie, he was received as a member by his own brother Maurice, who had been elected in 1934. [[UNESCO]] awarded him the first [[Kalinga Prize]] in 1952 for his work in popularizing scientific knowledge, and he was elected a Foreign Member of the [[Royal Society]] on 23 April 1953.<ref name="frs"/>
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| In 1961 he received the title of Knight of the Grand Cross in the [[Légion d'honneur]]. De Broglie was awarded a post as counselor to the French High Commission of Atomic Energy in 1945 for his efforts to bring industry and science closer together. He established a center for applied mechanics at the [[Henri Poincaré Institute]], where research into optics, cybernetics, and atomic energy were carried out. He inspired the formation of the [[International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science]] and was an early member.
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| == Important theories ==
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| === Matter and wave–particle duality ===
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| {{Main|De Broglie hypothesis}}
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| "The fundamental idea of [my 1924 thesis] was the following: The fact that, following [[Einstein]]'s introduction of [[photons]] in light waves, one knew that light contains particles which are concentrations of energy incorporated into the wave, suggests that all particles, like the electron, must be transported by a wave into which it is incorporated... My essential idea was to extend to all particles the coexistence of waves and particles discovered by Einstein in 1905 in the case of light and photons." "With every particle of matter with mass '''m''' and velocity '''v''' a real wave must be 'associated'", related to the momentum by the equation: | |
| :<math>\lambda = \frac{h}{p} = \frac {h}{{m}{v}} \sqrt{1 - \frac{v^2}{c^2}}</math>
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| where <math>\lambda</math> is the [[wavelength]], <math>h</math> is the [[Planck constant]], <math>p</math> is the [[momentum]], <math>m</math> is the [[rest mass]], <math>v</math> is the [[velocity]] and <math>c</math> is the [[speed of light]] in a vacuum."
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| This theory set the basis of wave mechanics. It was supported by Einstein, confirmed by the [[Davisson–Germer experiment|electron diffraction experiments]] of Davisson and Germer, and generalized by the work of [[Schrödinger]].
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| However, this generalization was statistical and was not approved of by de Broglie, who said "that the particle must be the seat of an internal periodic movement and that it must move in a wave in order to remain in phase with it was ignored by the actual [[physicists]] [who are] wrong to consider a wave propagation without localization of the particle, which was quite contrary to my original ideas."
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| From a philosophical viewpoint, this theory of matter-waves has contributed greatly to the ruin of the atomism of the past. Originally, de Broglie thought that real wave (i.e., having a direct physical interpretation) was associated with particles. In fact, the wave aspect of matter was formalized by a [[wavefunction]] defined by the [[Schrödinger equation]], which is a pure mathematical entity having a probabilistic interpretation, without the support of real physical elements. This wavefunction gives an appearance of wave behavior to matter, without making real physical waves appear. However, until the end of his life de Broglie returned to a direct and real physical interpretation of matter-waves, following the work of [[David Bohm]]. The [[de Broglie–Bohm theory]] is today the only interpretation giving real status to matter-waves and representing the predictions of quantum theory.
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| === {{Anchor|de Broglie internal clock}} Conjecture of an internal clock of the electron ===
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| In his 1924 thesis, de Broglie conjectured that the electron has an internal clock that constitutes part of the mechanism by which a [[pilot wave]] guides a particle.<ref>See for example the description of de Broglie's view in: David Bohm, Basil Hiley: ''The de Broglie pilot wave theory and the further development and new insights arising out of it'', Foundations of Physics, volume 12, number 10, 1982, Appendix: On the background of the papers on trajectories interpretation, by D. Bohm, ([http://leopard.physics.ucdavis.edu/rts/p298/pilotwavetheory.pdf PDF])</ref> Subsequently [[David Hestenes]] has proposed a link to the [[Zitterbewegung]] that was suggested by [[Erwin Schrödinger]].<ref>D. Hestenes, October 1990, The Zitterbewegung interpretation of quantum mechanics, Foundations of Physics, vol. 20, no. 10, pp. 1213–1232</ref>
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| Attempts at verifying the internal clock hypothesis and measuring clock frequency are so far not conclusive;<ref>See for example G.R. Osche, Electron channeling resonance and de Broglie's internal clock'', Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie, vol. 36, 2001, pp. 61–71 ([http://aflb.ensmp.fr/AFLB-361/aflb361m718.pdf full text])</ref> recent experimental data is at least compatible with de Broglie's conjecture.<ref>Catillon, Foundations of Physics, July 2001, vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 659–664</ref>
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| === Non-nullity and variability of mass ===
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| According to de Broglie, the [[neutrino]] and the [[photon]] have rest masses that are non-zero, though very low. That a photon is not quite massless is imposed by the coherence of his theory. Incidentally, this rejection of the hypothesis of a massless photon enabled him to doubt the hypothesis of the expansion of the universe.
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| In addition, he believed that the true mass of particles is not constant, but variable, and that each particle can be represented as a [[thermodynamic]] machine equivalent to a cyclic integral of action.
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| === Generalization of the principle of least action ===
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| In the second part of his 1924 thesis, de Broglie used the equivalence of the mechanical principle of least action with [[Fermat's principle|Fermat's optical principle]]: "Fermat's principle applied to phase waves is identical to [[Maupertuis' principle]] applied to the moving body; the possible dynamic trajectories of the moving body are identical to the possible rays of the wave." This equivalence had been pointed out by [[William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]] a century earlier, and published by him around 1830, in an era where no experience gave proof of the fundamental principles of physics being involved in the description of atomic phenomena.
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| Up to his final work, he appeared to be the physicist who most sought that dimension of action which [[Max Planck]], at the beginning of the 20th century, had shown to be the only universal unity (with his dimension of entropy).
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| === Duality of the laws of nature ===
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| Far from claiming to make "the contradiction disappear" which [[Max Born]] thought could be achieved with a statistical approach, de Broglie extended wave–particle duality to all particles (and to crystals which revealed the effects of diffraction) and extended the principle of duality to the laws of nature.
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| His last work made a single system of laws from the two large systems of thermodynamics and of mechanics:
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| {{quotation|When [[Boltzmann]] and his continuators developed their statistical interpretation of Thermodynamics, one could have considered Thermodynamics to be a complicated branch of Dynamics. But, with my actual ideas, it's Dynamics that appear to be a simplified branch of Thermodynamics. I think that, of all the ideas that I've introduced in quantum theory in these past years, it's that idea that is, by far, the most important and the most profound.}}
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| That idea seems to match the continuous–discontinuous duality, since its dynamics could be the limit of its thermodynamics when transitions to continuous limits are postulated. It is also close to that of [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]], who posited the necessity of "architectonic principles" to complete the system of mechanical laws.
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| However, according to him, there is less duality, in the sense of opposition, than synthesis (one is the limit of the other) and the effort of synthesis is constant according to him, like in his first formula, in which the first member pertains to mechanics and the second to optics:
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| : <math> m c^2 = h \nu </math>
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| === Neutrino theory of light ===
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| This theory, which dates from 1934, introduces the idea that the photon is equivalent to the fusion of two [[Paul Dirac|Dirac]] [[neutrinos]].
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| It shows that the movement of the center of gravity of these two particles obeys the [[Maxwell equations]]—that implies that the neutrino and the photon both have rest masses that are non-zero, though very low.
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| === Hidden thermodynamics ===
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| De Broglie's final great idea was the hidden thermodynamics of isolated particles. It is an attempt to bring together the three furthest principles of physics: the principles of Fermat, Maupertuis, and [[Carnot's principle|Carnot]].
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| In this work, [[Action (physics)|action]] becomes a sort of opposite to [[entropy]], through an equation that relates the only two universal dimensions of the form:
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| :<math>{Action\over h} = -{Entropy\over k}</math>
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| As a consequence of its great impact, this theory brings back the [[uncertainty principle]] to distances around extrema of action, distances corresponding to ''reductions in entropy''.
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| ==Honors and awards==
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| [[File:Louis de Broglie by Gheorghe Manu .png|thumb|right|Louis de Broglie by Gheorghe Manu]]
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| * 1929 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]]
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| * 1929 Henri Poincaré Medal
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| * 1932 [[Albert I of Monaco]] Prize
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| * 1938 [[Max Planck Medal]]
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| * 1938 Fellow, [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]
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| * 1944 Fellow, [[Académie française]]
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| * 1952 [[Kalinga Prize]]
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| * 1953 Fellow, [[Royal Society]]<ref name="frs">{{cite doi|10.1098/rsbm.1988.0002}}</ref>
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| ==Publications==
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| * ''Recherches sur la théorie des quanta'' (Researches on the quantum theory), Thesis, Paris, 1924, Ann. de Physique (10) '''3''', 22 (1925)
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| * ''Ondes et mouvements'' (Waves and Motions). Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1926.
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| * ''Rapport au 5e Conseil de Physique Solvay.'' Brussels, 1927.
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| * ''La mécanique ondulatoire'' (Wave Mechanics). Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1928.
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| * ''Matière et lumière'' (Matter and Light). Paris: Albin Michel, 1937.
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| * ''Une tentative d'interprétation causale et non linéaire de la mécanique ondulatoire: la théorie de la double solution.'' Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1956.
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| ** English translation: ''Non-linear Wave Mechanics: A Causal Interpretation.'' Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1960.
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| * ''Sur les sentiers de la science'' (On the Paths of Science).
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| * ''Introduction à la nouvelle théorie des particules de M. Jean-Pierre Vigier et de ses collaborateurs.'' Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1961. Paris: Albin Michel, 1960.
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| ** English translation: ''Introduction to the Vigier Theory of elementary particles.'' Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1963.
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| * ''Étude critique des bases de l'interprétation actuelle de la mécanique ondulatoire.'' Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1963.
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| ** English translation: ''The Current Interpretation of Wave Mechanics: A Critical Study.'' Amsterdam, Elsevier, 1964.
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| * ''Certitudes et incertitudes de la science'' (Certitudes and Incertitudes of Science). Paris: Albin Michel, 1966.
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| == References ==
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| {{reflist}}
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| ==External links==
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| {{commons|Louis de Broglie}}
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| {{Wikiquotepar|Louis de Broglie}}
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| *[http://www.academie-francaise.fr/immortels/base/academiciens/fiche.asp?param=580 Les Immortels: Louis de BROGLIE]" (Académie française, in [[French language|French]])
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| * [http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1929/broglie-bio.html Louis de Broglie – Biography]" (Nobel Foundation)
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| *[http://www.angelfire.com/realm/gotha/gotha/broglie.html Paul Theroff (2005) An Online Gotha: Broglie Genealogy]
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| * [http://aflb.ensmp.fr/ Fondation Louis de Broglie]
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| * {{MathGenealogy|id=105807}}
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| * [http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/de_broglie_-_hidden_thermodynamics_book.pdf English translation of his book on hidden thermodynamics by D. H. Delphenich]
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| *[http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/de_broglie_-_measurement_in_wave_mechanics.pdf The Theory of measurement in wave mechanics] (English translation of his book on the subject)
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| *[http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/de_broglie_-_new_conception_of_light.pdf "A new conception of light"] (English translation)
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| {{Nobel Prize in Physics Laureates 1926–1950}}
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| {{Académie française Seat 1}}
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| {{Dukes of Broglie}}
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| {{Authority control|PND=118674293|LCCN=n/83/162018|VIAF=4927396|SELIBR=179286}}
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| {{Persondata
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| |NAME=Broglie, Louis de
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| |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
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| |SHORT DESCRIPTION= [[Physicist]]
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| |DATE OF BIRTH= August 15, 1892
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| |PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Dieppe, France|Dieppe]], [[France]]
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| |DATE OF DEATH= March 19, 1987
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| |PLACE OF DEATH= [[Paris]], [[France]]
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| }}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Broglie, Louis De}}
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| [[Category:1892 births]]
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| [[Category:1987 deaths]]
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| [[Category:People from Dieppe, Seine-Maritime]]
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| [[Category:Dukes of Broglie]]
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| [[Category:University of Paris alumni]]
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| [[Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society]]
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| [[Category:French physicists]]
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| [[Category:International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science members]]
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| [[Category:Kalinga Prize recipients]]
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| [[Category:University of Paris faculty]]
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| [[Category:Members of the Académie française]]
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| [[Category:Officers of the French Academy of Sciences]]
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| [[Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]
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| [[Category:Foreign Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences]]
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| [[Category:Nobel laureates in Physics]]
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| [[Category:French Nobel laureates]]
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| [[Category:Quantum physicists]]
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| [[Category:Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur]]
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| [[Category:French military personnel of World War I]]
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| [[Category:Theoretical physicists]]
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| [[Category:Winners of the Max Planck Medal]]
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| {{Link FA|ru}}
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