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| [[Image:Radiation-patterns-v.png|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Three-dimensional antenna radiation patterns. The radial distance from the origin in any direction represents the strength of radiation emitted in that direction. The top shows the [[Directional antenna|directive]] pattern of a [[horn antenna]], the bottom shows the [[omnidirectional antenna|omnidirectional]] pattern of a [[dipole antenna]].]] | | So [http://www.polit74.ru/bitrix/redirect.php?event1=&event2=&event3=&goto=http://cctvdvrreviews.com cctv dvr hard drive format] property managers must be sure they're not incurring any legal risks before starting CCTV equipment. The apartments are breathtakingly spacious, open on all sides, giving an unfettered view from the will ([http://kinolom.ru/engine/redirect.php?url=http://cctvdvrreviews.com kinolom.Ru]) green landscaped surroundings and simultaneously guaranteeing utmost privacy. The investment just for this type of technology is extremely cost-effective ' merely a small one-time fee will provide access to over 3,000 global channels and radio stations. Police cars in the United States have this in order that the cops can record everything when they're chasing criminals or chasing a runaway vehicle. The DVR system records the ongoing activities in the premise.<br><br> |
| {{Antennas|Characteristics}}
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| In the field of [[Antenna (radio)|antenna]] design the term '''radiation pattern''' (or '''antenna pattern''' or '''far-field pattern''') refers to the ''directional'' (angular) dependence of the strength of the [[radio waves]] from the antenna or other source.<ref name="Balanis">Constantine A. Balanis: “Antenna Theory, Analysis and Design”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2nd ed. 1982 ISBN 0-471-59268-4</ref><ref name="Cheng">David K Cheng: “Field and Wave Electromagnetics”, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc., Edition 2, 1998. ISBN 0-201-52820-7</ref><ref name="JordanBalmain1968">Edward C. Jordan & Keith G. Balmain; “Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems” (2nd ed. 1968) Prentice-Hall. ISBN 81-203-0054-8</ref>
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| Particularly in the fields of [[fiber optics]], [[laser]]s, and [[integrated optics]], the term radiation pattern may also be used as a synonym for the '''[[Near and far field|near-field]] pattern''' or '''Fresnel pattern'''.<ref name="IEEEdict1997">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
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| , “The IEEE standard dictionary of electrical and electronics terms”; 6th ed. New York, N.Y., Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, c1997. IEEE Std 100-1996. ISBN 1-55937-833-6 [ed. Standards Coordinating Committee 10, Terms and Definitions; Jane Radatz, (chair)]</ref> This refers to the ''positional'' dependence of the electromagnetic field in the [[Near and far field|near-field]], or Fresnel region of the source. The near-field pattern is most commonly defined over a plane placed in front of the source, or over a cylindrical or spherical surface enclosing it.<ref name="Balanis"/><ref name="IEEEdict1997"/>
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| The far-field pattern of an antenna may be determined experimentally at an [[antenna measurement|antenna range]], or alternatively, the near-field pattern may be found using a '''[[Electromagnetic near-field scanner|near-field scanner]]''', and the radiation pattern deduced from it by computation.<ref name="Balanis"/> The far-field radiation pattern can also be calculated from the antenna shape by computer programs such as [[Numerical Electromagnetics Code|NEC]]. Other software, like [[HFSS]] can also compute the near field.
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| The far field radiation pattern may be represented graphically as a plot of one of a number of related variables, including; the field strength at a constant (large) radius (an '''amplitude pattern''' or '''field pattern'''), the power per unit solid angle ('''power pattern''') and the [[Antenna gain|directive gain]]. Very often, only the relative amplitude is plotted, normalized either to the amplitude on the antenna [[Antenna boresight|boresight]], or to the total radiated power. The plotted quantity may be shown on a linear scale, or in [[Decibel|dB]]. The plot is typically represented as a three dimensional graph (as at right), or as separate graphs in the [[vertical plane]] and [[horizontal plane]]. This is often known as a '''polar diagram'''.
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| ==Reciprocity== | |
| It is a fundamental property of antennas that the '''receiving pattern''' (sensitivity as a function of direction) of an antenna when used for [[Radio receiver|receiving]] is identical to the far-field radiation pattern of the antenna when used for [[Transmitter|transmitting]]. This is a consequence of the [[reciprocity (electromagnetism)|reciprocity theorem]] of electromagnetics and is proved below. Therefore in discussions of radiation patterns the antenna can be viewed as either transmitting or receiving, whichever is more convenient.
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| ==Typical patterns==
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| [[Image:Sidelobes en.svg|thumb|Typical polar radiation plot. Most antennas show a pattern of "lobes" or maxima of radiation. In a [[Directional antenna|directive antenna]], shown here, the largest lobe, in the desired direction of propagation, is called the "[[main lobe]]". The other lobes are called "[[sidelobe]]s" and usually represent radiation in unwanted directions.]] | |
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| Since [[electromagnetic radiation]] is [[dipole radiation]], it is not possible to build an antenna that radiates equally in all directions, although such a hypothetical [[isotropic antenna]] is used as a reference to calculate [[antenna gain]]. The simplest antennas, [[Monopole antenna|monopole]] and [[dipole antenna]]s, consist of one or two straight metal rods along a common axis.
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| These [[Axial symmetry|axially symmetric]] antennas have radiation patterns with a similar symmetry, called [[Omnidirectional antenna|omnidirectional]] patterns; they radiate equal power in all directions perpendicular to the antenna, with the power varying only with the angle to the axis, dropping off to zero on the antenna's axis. This illustrates the general principle that if the shape of an antenna is symmetrical, its radiation pattern will have the same symmetry.
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| Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as "''lobes''", which may be subclassified into major or main, minor, side, and back lobes. A radiation lobe is a “portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of relatively weak radiation intensity.”
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| In most antennas, the radiation from the different parts of the antenna [[Interference (wave propagation)|interferes]] at some angles. This results in zero radiation at certain angles where the radio waves from the different parts arrive [[out of phase]], and maxima of radiation at other angles where the radio waves arrive [[in phase]]. Therefore the radiation plot of most antennas shows a pattern of maxima(lobe) at various angles, separated by "''[[null (radio)|null]]s''" at which the radiation goes to zero.
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| [[Image:Typical Antenna Pattern.jpg|thumb|right|A rectangular radiation plot, an alternative presentation method to a polar plot.]] | |
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| The larger the antenna is compared to a wavelength, the more lobes there will be. In a [[Directional antenna|directive antenna]] in which the objective is to direct the radio waves in one particular direction, the lobe in that direction is larger than the others; this is called the "''[[main lobe]]''". The axis of maximum radiation, passing through the center of the main lobe, is called the "''beam axis''" or ''[[Antenna boresight|boresight axis]]''". In some antennas, such as split-beam antennas, there may exist more than one major lobe. A minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe.
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| The other lobes, representing unwanted radiation in other directions, are called "''[[side lobe]]s''". The side lobe in the opposite direction (180°) from the main lobe is called the "''back lobe''". Usually it refers to a minor lobe that
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| occupies the hemisphere in a direction opposite to that of the major (main) lobe.
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| Minor lobes usually represent radiation in undesired directions, and they should be minimized. Side lobes are normally the largest of the minor lobes. The level of minor lobes is usually expressed as a ratio of the power density in the lobe in question to that of the major lobe. This ratio is often termed the side lobe ratio or side lobe level. Side lobe levels of −20 dB or smaller are usually not desirable in many applications. Attainment of a side lobe level smaller than −30 dB usually requires very careful design and construction. In most radar systems, low side lobe ratios are very important to minimize false target indications through the side lobes.
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| ==Proof of reciprocity==
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| For a complete proof, see the [[reciprocity (electromagnetism)]] article. Here, we present a common simple proof limited to the approximation of two antennas separated by a large distance compared to the size of the antenna, in a homogeneous medium. The first antenna is the test antenna whose patterns are to be investigated; this antenna is free to point in any direction. The second antenna is a reference antenna, which points rigidly at the first antenna.
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| Each antenna is alternately connected to a transmitter having a particular source impedance, and a receiver having the same input impedance (the impedance may differ between the two antennas).
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| It will be assumed that the two antennas are sufficiently far apart that the properties of the transmitting antenna are not affected by the load placed upon it by the receiving antenna. Consequently, the amount of power transferred from the transmitter to the receiver can be expressed as the product of two independent factors; one depending on the directional properties of the transmitting antenna, and the other depending on the directional properties of the receiving antenna.
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| For the transmitting antenna, by the definition of gain, <math>G</math>, the radiation power density at a distance <math>r</math> from the antenna (i.e. the power passing through unit area) is
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| :<math>\mathrm{W}(\theta,\Phi) = \frac{\mathrm{G}(\theta,\Phi)}{4 \pi r^{2}} P_{t}</math>.
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| Here, the arguments <math>\theta</math> and <math>\Phi</math> indicate a dependence on direction from the antenna, and <math>P_{t}</math> stands for the power the transmitter would deliver into a matched load. The gain <math>G</math> may be broken down into three factors; the [[antenna gain]] (the directional redistribution of the power), the [[radiation efficiency]] (accounting for ohmic losses in the antenna), and lastly the loss due to mismatch between the antenna and transmitter. Strictly, to include the mismatch, it should be called the '''realized gain''',<ref name="IEEEdict1997"/> but this is not common usage.
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| For the receiving antenna, the power delivered to the receiver is
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| :<math>P_{r} = \mathrm{A}(\theta,\Phi) W\,</math>.
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| Here <math>W</math> is the power density of the incident radiation, and <math>A</math> is the [[antenna aperture]] or effective area of the antenna (the area the antenna would need to occupy in order to intercept the observed captured power). The directional arguments are now relative to the receiving antenna, and again <math>A</math> is taken to include ohmic and mismatch losses.
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| Putting these expressions together, the power transferred from transmitter to receiver is
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| :<math>P_{r} = A \frac{G}{4 \pi r^{2}} P_{t}</math>,
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| where <math>G</math> and <math>A</math> are directionally dependent properties of the transmitting and receiving antennas respectively. For transmission from the reference
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| antenna (2), to the test antenna (1), that is
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| :<math>P_{1r} = \mathrm{A_{1}}(\theta,\Phi) \frac{G_{2}}{4 \pi r^{2}} P_{2t}</math>,
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| and for transmission in the opposite direction | |
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| :<math>P_{2r} = A_{2} \frac{\mathrm{G_{1}}(\theta,\Phi)}{4 \pi r^{2}} P_{1t}</math>.
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| Here, the gain <math>G_{2}</math> and effective area <math>A_{2}</math> of antenna 2 are fixed, because the orientation of this antenna is fixed with respect to the first.
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| Now for a given disposition of the antennas, the [[reciprocity (electromagnetism)|reciprocity theorem]] requires that the power transfer is equally effective in each direction, i.e.
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| :<math>\frac{P_{1r}}{P_{2t}} = \frac{P_{2r}}{P_{1t}}</math>,
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| whence
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| :<math>\frac{\mathrm{A_{1}}(\theta,\Phi)}{\mathrm{G_{1}}(\theta,\Phi)} = \frac{A_{2}}{G_{2}}</math>.
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| But the right hand side of this equation is fixed (because the orientation of antenna 2 is fixed), and so
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| :<math>\frac{\mathrm{A_{1}}(\theta,\Phi)}{\mathrm{G_{1}}(\theta,\Phi)} = \mathrm{constant}</math>, | |
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| i.e. the directional dependence of the (receiving) effective aperture and the (transmitting) gain are identical (QED). Furthermore, the constant of proportionality is the same irrespective of the nature of the antenna, and so must be the same for all antennas. Analysis of a particular antenna (such as a [[Hertzian dipole]]), shows that this constant is <math>\frac{\lambda^{2}}{4\pi}</math>, where <math>\lambda</math> is the free-space wavelength. Hence, for any antenna the gain and the effective aperture are related by
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| :<math>\mathrm{A}(\theta,\Phi) = \frac{\lambda^{2} \mathrm{G}(\theta,\Phi)}{4 \pi}</math>.
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| Even for a receiving antenna, it is more usual to state the gain than to specify the effective aperture. The power delivered to the receiver is therefore more usually written as
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| :<math>P_{r} = \frac{\lambda^{2} G_{r} G_{t}}{(4 \pi r)^{2}} P_{t}</math>
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| (see [[link budget]]). The effective aperture is however of interest for comparison with the actual physical size of the antenna.
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| ===Practical consequences===
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| * When determining the pattern of a receiving antenna by computer simulation, it is not necessary to perform a calculation for every possible angle of incidence. Instead, the radiation pattern of the antenna is determined by a single simulation, and the receiving pattern inferred by reciprocity.
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| * When determining the pattern of an [[antenna measurement|antenna by measurement]], the antenna may be either receiving or transmitting, whichever is more convenient.
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| ==References==
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| <references/>
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| {{FS1037C MS188}}
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| ==External links==
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| *[http://208.112.70.144/2006/radiation_patterns.html Understanding and Using Antenna Radiation Patterns By Joseph H. Reisert]
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| [[Category:Antennas (radio)]]
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| [[Category:Fiber optics]]
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| {{Link GA|de}}
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