Price of anarchy: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 00:30, 30 November 2013

Template:Expert-subject In information theory, the limiting density of discrete points is an adjustment to the formula of Claude Shannon for differential entropy.

It was formulated by Edwin Thompson Jaynes to address defects in the initial definition of differential entropy.

Definition

Shannon originally wrote down the following formula for the entropy of a continuous distribution, known as differential entropy:

H (X) = - \int p (x) \log p (x) d x .

Unlike Shannon's formula for the discrete entropy, however, this is not the result of any derivation (Shannon simply replaced the summation symbol in the discrete version with an integral) and it turns out to lack many of the properties that make the discrete entropy a useful measure of uncertainty. In particular, it is not invariant under a change of variables and can even become negative.

Jaynes (1963, 1968) argued that the formula for the continuous entropy should be derived by taking the limit of increasingly dense discrete distributions^[1]^[2]. Suppose that we have a set of $n$ discrete points ${x_{i}}$ , such that in the limit $n \to \infty$ their density approaches a function $m (x)$ called the invariant measure.

\lim_{n \to \infty} \frac{1}{n} (number of points in a < x < b) = \int_{a}^{b} m (x) d x

Jaynes derived from this the following formula for the continuous entropy, which he argued should be taken as the correct formula:

H (X) = - \int p (x) \log \frac{p (x)}{m (x)} d x .

It is formally similar to but conceptually distinct from the (negative of the) Kullback–Leibler divergence or relative entropy, which is comparison measure between two probability distributions. The formula for the Kullback-Leibler divergence is similar, except that the invariant measure $m (x)$ is replaced by a second probability density function $q (x)$ . In Jaynes' formula, $m (x)$ is not a probability density but simply a density. In particular it does not have to be normalised so as to sum to 1.

Jaynes' continuous entropy formula and the relative entropy share the property of being invariant under a change of variables, which solves many of the difficulties that come from applying Shannon's continuous entropy formula.

It is the inclusion of the invariant measure $m$ that ensures the formula's invariance under a change of variables, since both $m (x)$ and $p (x)$ must be transformed in the same way.

References

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Template:Probability-stub

↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
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The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

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[1] 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534

[2] One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang

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[2]

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+{{Expert-subject|Mathematics|date=November 2008}}
+In [[information theory]], the '''limiting density of discrete points''' is an adjustment to the formula of [[Claude Shannon]] for [[differential entropy]].
+It was formulated by [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes]] to address defects in the initial definition of differential entropy.
+== Definition ==
+Shannon originally wrote down the following formula for the [[entropy]] of a continuous distribution, known as '''differential entropy''':
+: <math>H(X)=-\int p(x)\log p(x)\,dx.</math>
+Unlike Shannon's formula for the discrete entropy, however, this is not the result of any derivation (Shannon simply replaced the summation symbol in the discrete version with an integral) and it turns out to lack many of the properties that make the discrete entropy a useful measure of uncertainty.  In particular, it is not invariant under a [[change of variables]] and can even become negative.
+Jaynes (1963, 1968) argued that the formula for the continuous entropy should be derived by taking the limit of increasingly dense discrete distributions<ref>{{cite book|authorlink=Edwin Thompson Jaynes|author=Jaynes, E. T.|url=http://bayes.wustl.edu/etj/articles/brandeis.pdf|year=1963|chapter=Information Theory and Statistical Mechanics|title=Statistical Physics|editor=K. Ford|publisher=Benjamin, New York|pages=181}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Jaynes, E. T.|year=1968|title=Prior Probabilities|journal=IEEE Trans. on Systems Science and Cybernetics|volume=SSC-4|pages=227|url=http://bayes.wustl.edu/etj/articles/prior.pdf}}</ref>.  Suppose that we have a set of <math>n</math> discrete points <math>\{x_i\}</math>, such that in the limit <math>n \to \infty</math> their density approaches a function <math>m(x)</math> called the [[invariant measure]].
+:<math> \lim_{n \to \infty}\frac{1}{n}\,(\mbox{number of points in }a<x<b)=\int_a^b m(x)\,dx</math>
+Jaynes derived from this the following formula for the continuous entropy, which he argued should be taken as the correct formula:
+: <math>H(X)=-\int p(x)\log\frac{p(x)}{m(x)}\,dx.</math>
+It is formally similar to but conceptually distinct from the (negative of the) [[Kullback–Leibler divergence]] or relative entropy, which is comparison measure between two probability distributions.  The formula for the Kullback-Leibler divergence is similar, except that the invariant measure <math>m(x)</math> is replaced by a second probability density function <math>q(x)</math>.  In Jaynes' formula, <math>m(x)</math> is not a probability density but simply a density.  In particular it does not have to be normalised so as to sum to 1.
+Jaynes' continuous entropy formula and the relative entropy share the property of being invariant under a change of variables, which solves many of the difficulties that come from applying Shannon's continuous entropy formula.
+It is the inclusion of the invariant measure <math>m</math> that ensures the formula's invariance under a change of variables, since both <math>m(x)</math> and <math>p(x)</math> must be transformed in the same way.
+==References==
+{{reflist}}
+* {{cite book|author=Jaynes, E. T.|year=2003|title=Probability Theory: The Logic of Science|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521592710}}
+{{DEFAULTSORT:Limiting Density Of Discrete Points}}
+[[Category:Probability theory]]
+[[Category:Theory of probability distributions]]
+[[Category:Information theory]]
+{{probability-stub}}

Price of anarchy: Difference between revisions

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