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{{about|decay of protons into subatomic particles|the type of radioactive decay in which a nucleus ejects a proton|Proton emission}}
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[[File:Proton decay.svg|300px|right|thumb|The pattern of [[weak isospin]]s, [[weak hypercharge]]s, and [[color charge]]s for particles in the [[Georgi-Glashow model]]. Here, a proton, consisting of two up quarks and a down, decays into a pi meson, consisting of an up and anti-up, and a positron, via an X boson with electric charge -4/3.]]
 
In [[particle physics]], '''proton decay''' is a [[Hypothesis|hypothetical]] form of [[radioactive decay]] in which the [[proton]] decays into lighter [[subatomic particle]]s, such as a neutral [[pion]] and a [[positron]].<ref>Radioactive decays by Protons. Myth or reality?, [[Ishfaq Ahmad]], The Nucleus, 1969. pp 69-70</ref> There is currently no experimental evidence that proton decay occurs.
 
In the [[Standard Model]], protons, a type of [[baryon]], are theoretically stable because [[baryon number]] ([[quark number]]) is [[conservation of baryon number|conserved]] (under normal circumstances; however, see [[chiral anomaly]]). Therefore, protons will not decay into other particles on their own, because they are the lightest (and therefore least energetic) baryon.
 
Some beyond-the-Standard Model [[Grand Unified Theory|grand unified theories]] (GUTs) explicitly break the baryon number symmetry, allowing protons to decay via the [[Higgs particle]], [[magnetic monopoles]] or new [[X boson]]s. Proton decay is one of the few observable effects of the various proposed GUTs. To date, all attempts to observe these events have failed.
 
== Baryogenesis ==
{{Main| Baryogenesis}}
{{unsolved|physics|Do protons [[Radioactive decay|decay]]? If so, then what is the [[half-life]]? Can [[nuclear binding energy]] affect this?}}
One of the outstanding problems in modern physics is the predominance of [[matter]] over [[antimatter]] in the [[universe]]. The universe, as a whole, seems to have a nonzero positive baryon number density — that is, matter exists. Since it is assumed in [[physical cosmology|cosmology]] that the particles we see were created using the same physics we measure today, it would normally be expected that the overall baryon number should be zero, as matter and antimatter should have been created in equal amounts. This has led to a number of proposed mechanisms for [[symmetry breaking]] that favour the creation of normal matter (as opposed to antimatter) under certain conditions. This imbalance would have been exceptionally small, on the order of 1 in every {{val|10000000000}} (10<sup>10</sup>) particles a small fraction of a second after the Big Bang, but after most of the matter and antimatter annihilated, what was left over was all the baryonic matter in the current universe, along with a much greater number of [[boson]]s. New experiments at [[Fermilab]], however, seem to show that this imbalance is much greater than previously assumed. In an experiment involving a series of particle collisions, the amount of generated matter was approximately 1% larger than the amount of generated antimatter. The reason for this discrepancy is yet unknown.<ref>
{{cite arxiv
|author=V.M. Abazov ''et al.''
|year=2010
  |title=Evidence for an anomalous like-sign dimuon charge asymmetry
|eprint=1005.2757
}}</ref>
 
Most [[grand unified theory|grand unified theories]] (GUTs) explicitly break the [[baryon number]] symmetry, which would account for this discrepancy, typically invoking reactions mediated by very massive [[X boson]]s ({{SubatomicParticle|X boson}}) or massive [[Higgs boson]]s ({{SubatomicParticle|Higgs boson}}). The rate at which these events occur is governed largely by the mass of the intermediate {{SubatomicParticle|X boson}} or {{SubatomicParticle|Higgs boson}} particles, so by assuming these reactions are responsible for the majority of the baryon number seen today, a maximum mass can be calculated above which the rate would be too slow to explain the presence of matter today. These estimates predict that a large volume of material will occasionally exhibit a spontaneous proton decay.
 
== Experimental evidence ==
 
Proton decay is one of the few unobserved effects of the various proposed GUTs, another major one being [[magnetic monopole]]s. Both became the focus of major experimental physics efforts starting in the early 1980s. Proton decay was, for a time, an extremely exciting area of experimental physics research. To date, all attempts to observe these events have failed. Recent experiments at the [[Super-Kamiokande]] water [[Cherenkov radiation]] detector in Japan gave lower limits for proton [[half-life]], at 90% [[confidence level]], of {{val|6.6|e=33}} years via [[antimuon]] decay and {{val|8.2|e=33}} years via [[positron]] decay.<ref name="Nishino">
{{cite journal
|author=H. Nishino ''et al.'' ([[Super-Kamiokande|Super-K Collaboration]])
|year=2012
|title=Search for Proton Decay via {{SubatomicParticle|Proton+}} &rarr; {{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}{{SubatomicParticle|pion0}} and {{SubatomicParticle|Proton+}} &rarr; {{SubatomicParticle|Muon+}}{{SubatomicParticle|pion0}} in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector
  |journal=[[Physical Review Letters]]
|volume=102 |issue=14 |pages=141801
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.141801
|bibcode=2009PhRvL.102n1801N
}}</ref> Newer, preliminary results estimate a half-life of no less than {{val|1.29|e=34}} years via positron decay.<ref>http://www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp/whatsnew/new-20091125-e.html</ref>
 
== Theoretical motivation ==
 
Despite the lack of observational evidence for proton decay, some [[grand unification theory|grand unification theories]], such as the [[Georgi–Glashow model]], require it. According to some such theories, the proton has a [[half-life]] of about [[1 E19 s and more|{{val|e=36}} years]], and decays into a [[positron]] and a neutral [[pion]] that itself immediately decays into 2 [[gamma radiation|gamma ray]] [[photon]]s:
 
:{| border = 0
|- style="height: 2em;"
| {{SubatomicParticle|Proton+}} &nbsp; || → &nbsp; || {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Positron}} &nbsp; || + &nbsp; || {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Pion0}}
|- style="height: 2em;"
| {{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}} &nbsp; || → &nbsp; || 2{{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Gamma}}
|}
 
Since a [[positron]] is an [[lepton|antilepton]] this decay preserves [[B-L]] number, which is conserved in most GUTs.
 
Additional decay modes are available (e.g.: {{SubatomicParticle|Proton+}} → {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Muon+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Pion0}}),<ref name="Nishino" /> both directly and when catalyzed via interaction with GUT-predicted [[magnetic monopole]]s.<ref>
{{cite journal
|author=B. V. Sreekantan
|year=1984
|title=Searches for Proton Decay and Superheavy Magnetic Monopoles
|url=http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/jaa/5/251-271.pdf
|journal=[[Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy]]
|volume=5 |issue= 3|pages=251&ndash;271
|doi= 10.1007/BF02714542
|bibcode=1984JApA....5..251S
}}</ref> Though this process has not been observed experimentally, it is within the realm of experimental testability for future planned very large-scale detectors on the megaton scale. Such detectors include the [[Kamioka Observatory#Hyper-Kamiokande|Hyper-Kamiokande]].
 
Early [[grand unification theory|grand unification theories]], such as the [[Georgi–Glashow model]], which were the first consistent theories to suggest proton decay postulated that the proton's half-life would be at least 10<sup>31</sup> years. As further experiments and calculations were performed in the 1990s, it became clear that the proton half-life could not lie below 10<sup>32</sup> years. Many books from that period refer to this figure for the possible decay time for baryonic matter.
 
Although the phenomenon is referred to as "proton decay", the effect would also be seen in [[neutron]]s bound inside atomic nuclei. Free neutrons—those not inside an atomic nucleus—are already known to decay into protons (and an electron and an antineutrino) in a process called [[beta decay]]. Free neutrons have a [[half-life]] of about 10 minutes ({{val|613.9|0.8|u=s}})<ref name="RPP">
{{cite journal
  |author=W.-M. Yao ''et al.''
  |year=2006
  |title=Review of Particle Physics – ''N'' Baryons
  |url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2006/tables/bxxx.pdf
  |journal=[[Journal of Physics G]]
  |volume=33 |issue= |pages=1
|doi= 10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001
|arxiv = astro-ph/0601168 |bibcode = 2006JPhG...33....1Y }}</ref> due to the [[weak interaction]]. Neutrons bound inside a nucleus have an immensely longer half-life—apparently as great as that of the proton.
 
== Decay operators ==
=== Dimension-6 proton decay operators ===
The [[classical scaling dimension|dimension]]-6 proton decay operators are <math>\frac{qqql}{\Lambda^2}</math>, <math>\frac{d^c u^c u^c e^c}{\Lambda^2}</math>, <math>\frac{\overline{e^c}\overline{u^c}qq}{\Lambda^2}</math> and <math>\frac{\overline{d^c}\overline{u^c}ql}{\Lambda^2}</math> where Λ is the [[Cutoff (physics)|cutoff scale]] for the [[Standard Model]]. All of these operators violate both [[baryon number]] (''B'') and [[lepton number]] (''L'') conservation but not the combination [[B−L|''B'' − ''L'']].
 
In GUT models, the exchange of an [[X and Y bosons|X or Y boson]] with the mass Λ<sub>GUT</sub> can lead to the last two operators suppressed by <math>\frac{1}{\Lambda_{GUT}^2}</math>. The exchange of a triplet Higgs with mass ''M'' can lead to all of the operators suppressed by 1/''M''<sup>2</sup>. See [[doublet–triplet splitting problem]].
 
<gallery caption="Proton Decay.  These graphics refer to the [[X and Y bosons|X bosons]] and [[Higgs boson]]s." widths="250px" heights="300px" perrow="3">
 
Image:Proton_decay2.svg|Dimension 6 proton decay mediated by the X boson (3,2){{su|b=−{{frac|5|6}}}} in SU(5) GUT
 
Image:proton decay3.svg|Dimension 6 proton decay mediated by the X boson (3,2){{su|b={{frac|1|6}}}} in flipped SU(5) GUT
 
Image:proton decay4.svg|Dimension 6 proton decay mediated by the triplet Higgs T (3,1){{su|b=−{{frac|1|3}}}} and the anti-triplet Higgs {{overline|T}} ({{overline|3}},1){{su|b={{frac|1|3}}}} in SU(5) GUT
 
</gallery>
 
=== Dimension-5 proton decay operators ===
In [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric]] extensions (such as the [[Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model|MSSM]]), we can also have dimension-5 operators involving two fermions and two [[sfermion]]s caused by the exchange of a [[tripletino]] of mass ''M''. The sfermions will then exchange a [[gaugino]] or [[Higgsino]] or [[gravitino]] leaving two fermions. The overall [[Feynman diagram]] has a loop (and other complications due to strong interaction physics). This decay rate is suppressed by <math>\frac{1}{M M_{SUSY}}</math> where ''M''<sub>SUSY</sub> is the mass scale of the [[superpartner]]s.
 
=== Dimension-4 proton decay operators ===
 
[[Image:R-parity violating decay.svg|frame|right]]
 
In the absence of [[matter parity]], supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model can give rise to the last operator suppressed by the inverse square of [[sdown]] quark mass. This is due to the dimension-4 operators
{{SubatomicParticle|Quark}}{{SubatomicParticle|Lepton}}{{SubatomicParticle|Down squark}}<sup>c</sup> and
{{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}<sup>c</sup>{{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}<sup>c</sup>{{SubatomicParticle|Down squark}}<sup>c</sup>.
 
The proton decay rate is only suppressed by <math>\frac{1}{M_{SUSY}^2}</math> which is far too fast unless the couplings are very small.
 
== See also ==
* [[Virtual black hole]]
* [[Weak hypercharge]]
* [[B − L]]
* [[X and Y bosons]]
 
==References==
<references/>
 
== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal
  |author=C. Amsler ''et al.'' ([[Particle Data Group]])
|year=2008
|title=Review of Particle Physics – ''N'' Baryons
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/tables/rpp2008-tab-baryons-N.pdf
|journal=[[Physics Letters B]]
|volume=667 |pages=1
|doi= 10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018
|bibcode = 2008PhLB..667....1P }}
*{{cite journal
|author=K. Hagiwara ''et al.'' ([[Particle Data Group]])
|year=2002
|title=Review of Particle Physics – ''N'' Baryons
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2002/bxxxn.pdf
|journal=[[Physical Review D]]
|volume=66 |pages=010001
|doi= 10.1103/PhysRevD.66.010001
|bibcode = 2002PhRvD..66a0001H }}
*{{cite book
|author=F. Adams, G. Laughlin
  |year=
|title=The Five Ages of the Universe : Inside the Physics of Eternity
  |publisher=
  |isbn=978-0-684-86576-8
}}
*{{cite book
  |author=L.M. Krauss
|year=
|title=Atom : An Odyssey from the Big Bang to Life on Earth
  |publisher=
|isbn=0-316-49946-3
}}
*{{cite journal
|author=D.-D. Wu, T.-Z. Li
  |year=
  |title=Proton decay, annihilation or fusion?
  |journal=[[Zeitschrift für Physik C]]
  |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=321–323
|doi= 10.1007/BF01556623
|bibcode=1985ZPhyC..27..321W
}}
*{{cite journal
|author=P. Nath, P. Fileviez Perez
  |year=2007
|title=Proton stability in grand unified theories, in strings and in branes
|journal=[[Physics Reports]]
|volume=441
|issue=5-6 |pages=191–317
|doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2007.02.010
|arxiv=hep-ph/0601023
|bibcode = 2007PhR...441..191N }}
 
==External links==
* [http://hep.bu.edu/~superk/pdk.html Proton decay at Super-Kamiokande]
* [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jcv/imb/imb.html Pictorial history of the IMB experiment]
* {{cite web
  |author=L. Maiani
  |year=2006
|title=The problem of proton decay
|url=http://axpd24.pd.infn.it/NO-VE2006/talks/NOVE_Maiani.pdf
|work=[http://www.slac.stanford.edu/spires/find/hep?key=6975763 3rd International Workshop on NO-VE]
}}
 
{{Proton decay experiments}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Proton Decay}}
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
[[Category:Particle physics]]
[[Category:Hypothetical processes]]
[[Category:Eschatology]]
 
[[ja:陽子#陽子の崩壊]]

Revision as of 22:34, 27 February 2014

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