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{{Italic title}} | |||
In the [[history of thermodynamics]], '''''On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances''''' is a 300-page paper written by American mathematical-engineer [[Willard Gibbs]]. It is one of the founding papers in [[thermodynamics]], along with German physicist [[Hermann von Helmholtz]]'s 1882 paper "''[[Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgänge]].''" Together they form the foundation of [[chemical thermodynamics]] as well as a large part of [[physical chemistry]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Ott | first = Bevan J. | coauthors = Boerio-Goates, Juliana | title = Chemical Thermodynamics – Principles and Applications | publisher = Academic Press | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-12-530990-2}}</ref><ref name="Servos">{{cite book | last = Servos | first = John, W. | title = Physical Chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1990 | isbn = 0-691-08566-8}}</ref> | |||
Gibbs's ''Equilibrium'' marked the beginning of chemical thermodynamics by integrating [[chemical]], physical, [[electrical]], and [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] phenomena into a coherent system. It introduced concepts such as [[chemical potential]], [[phase rule]], and others, which form the basis for modern physical chemistry. American writer [[Bill Bryson]] describes Gibbs's ''Equilibrium'' paper as "the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'' of [[thermodynamics]]".<ref>{{cite book | last = Bryson | first = Bill | title = A Short History of Nearly Everything | pages = 116–17,121 | publisher = Broadway Books | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-7679-0818-X}}</ref> | |||
''On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances'', was originally published in a relatively obscure American journal, the ''Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences'', in several parts, during the years 1875 to 1878 (although most cite "1876" as the key year).<ref>Gibbs, Willard, J. (1876). ''Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences'', III, pp. 108-248, Oct. 1875-May 1876, and pp. 343-524, May 1877-July 1878.</ref> It remained largely unknown until translated into German by [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] and into French by [[Henry Louis Le Chatelier]]. | |||
==Overview== | |||
Gibbs first contributed to mathematical physics with two papers published in 1873 in the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy on "[[graphical methods|Graphical Methods]] in the [[Thermodynamics]] of [[Fluids]]," and "Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by means of Surfaces." His subsequent and most important publication was "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances" (in two parts, 1876 and 1878). In this monumental, densely woven, 300-page treatise, the [[first law of thermodynamics]], the [[second law of thermodynamics]], the [[fundamental thermodynamic relation]], are applied to the predication and quantification of [[thermodynamics|thermodynamic]] [[Spontaneous process|reaction tendencies]] in any [[thermodynamic system]] in a visual, three-dimensional [[graphical]] language of [[Lagrangian]] calculus and [[phase transition]]s, among others.<ref name="Gibbs">{{cite book | last = Gibbs | first = J. Willard | title = The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs - Volume One Thermodynamics | publisher = Ox Bow Press | year = 1993 | isbn = 0-918024-77-3 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-neYVEbAm4oC&dq=scientific+papers+of+j+willard+gibbs}}</ref> As stated by [[Henri Louis Le Chatelier]], it "founded a new department of chemical science that is becoming comparable in importance to that created by [[Lavoisier]]." This work was translated into German by W. Ostwald (who styled its author the "founder of [[chemical energetics]]") in 1891 and into French by H. le Chatelier in 1899.<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs Josiah Willard Gibbs] - Britannica (1911).</ref> | |||
Gibbs's "Equilibrium" paper is considered one of the greatest achievements in physical science in the 19th century and one of the foundations of the science of [[physical chemistry]].<ref name="Servos" /> In these papers Gibbs applied [[thermodynamics]] to the interpretation of physicochemical phenomena and showed the explanation and interrelationship of what had been known only as isolated, inexplicable facts. | |||
Gibbs' papers on heterogeneous equilibria included: | |||
* Some [[chemical potential]] concepts | |||
* Some [[Thermodynamic free energy|free energy]] concepts | |||
* A [[statistical ensemble|Gibbsian ensemble]] ideal (basis of the [[statistical mechanics]] field) | |||
* A ''[[Gibbs phase rule|phase rule]]'' | |||
==Opening section== | |||
<div style="font-size:115%"> | |||
{{cquote|Die Energie der Welt ist konstant.}}</div> | |||
<center>(The [[energy]] of the [[world]] is constant).</center><br> | |||
<div style="font-size:115%"> | |||
{{cquote|Die Entropie der Welt strebt einem Maximum zu.}}</div> | |||
<center>(The [[entropy]] of the world tends to a maximum)</center> | |||
:::::::::::::::::::::::[[Rudolf Clausius|Clausius]]<ref>Clausius, R. (1865). ''The Mechanical Theory of Heat – with its Applications to the Steam Engine and to Physical Properties of Bodies.'' London: John van Voorst, 1 Paternoster Row. MDCCCLXVII.</ref> | |||
The comprehension of the laws which govern any material system is greatly facilitated by considering the [[energy]] and [[entropy]] of the system in the various states of which it is capable. As the difference of the values of the energy for any two states represents the combined amount of [[Work (thermodynamics)|work]] and [[thermodynamic work|heat]] received or yielded by the [[thermodynamic system|system]] when it is brought from one [[thermodynamic state|state]] to the other, and the difference of entropy is the limit of all possible values of the integral: | |||
:<math>\int \frac{\delta Q}{T}</math> | |||
in which ''dQ'' denotes the element of heat received from external sources, and ''T'' is the temperature of the part of the system receiving it, the varying values of energy and entropy characterize in all that is essential the effect producible by the system in passing from one state to another. For by mechanical and thermodynamic contrivances, supposedly theoretically perfect, any supply of work and heat may be transformed into any other which does not differ from it either in the amount of work and heat taken together or in the value of the integral: | |||
:<math>\int \frac{\delta Q}{T}</math> | |||
But it is not only in respect to the external relations of a system that its energy and entropy are of predominant importance. As in the case of simple mechanical systems, such as are discussed in theoretical mechanics, which are capable of only one kind of action upon external systems, namely the performance of mechanical work, the function which expresses the capability of the system of this kind of action also plays the leading part in the theory of equilibrium, the condition of equilibrium being that the variation of this function shall vanish, so in a thermodynamic system, such as all material systems are, which is capable of two different kinds of action upon external systems, the two functions which express the twofold capabilities of the system afford an almost equally simple criterion for equilibrium. | |||
==References== | |||
{{reflist}} | |||
==External links== | |||
* Gibbs's paper "[http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Gibbs1875-1878-Equilibrium_of_Heterogeneous_Substances.pdf On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances]" | |||
* At the Internet Archive, [http://archive.org/details/Onequilibriumhe00Gibb Part 1] and [http://archive.org/details/Onequilibriumhe00GibbA Part 2] in various file formats. | |||
[[Category:Thermodynamics literature]] | |||
[[Category:1870s in science]] | |||
[[Category:1876 in science]] | |||
[[Category:Physics books]] | |||
[[Category:Works originally published in American magazines]] | |||
[[Category:1876 works]] | |||
[[Category:Works originally published in science and technology magazines]] | |||
Revision as of 00:33, 10 November 2013
Template:Italic title In the history of thermodynamics, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances is a 300-page paper written by American mathematical-engineer Willard Gibbs. It is one of the founding papers in thermodynamics, along with German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz's 1882 paper "Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgänge." Together they form the foundation of chemical thermodynamics as well as a large part of physical chemistry.[1][2]
Gibbs's Equilibrium marked the beginning of chemical thermodynamics by integrating chemical, physical, electrical, and electromagnetic phenomena into a coherent system. It introduced concepts such as chemical potential, phase rule, and others, which form the basis for modern physical chemistry. American writer Bill Bryson describes Gibbs's Equilibrium paper as "the Principia of thermodynamics".[3]
On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, was originally published in a relatively obscure American journal, the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, in several parts, during the years 1875 to 1878 (although most cite "1876" as the key year).[4] It remained largely unknown until translated into German by Wilhelm Ostwald and into French by Henry Louis Le Chatelier.
Overview
Gibbs first contributed to mathematical physics with two papers published in 1873 in the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy on "Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids," and "Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by means of Surfaces." His subsequent and most important publication was "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances" (in two parts, 1876 and 1878). In this monumental, densely woven, 300-page treatise, the first law of thermodynamics, the second law of thermodynamics, the fundamental thermodynamic relation, are applied to the predication and quantification of thermodynamic reaction tendencies in any thermodynamic system in a visual, three-dimensional graphical language of Lagrangian calculus and phase transitions, among others.[5] As stated by Henri Louis Le Chatelier, it "founded a new department of chemical science that is becoming comparable in importance to that created by Lavoisier." This work was translated into German by W. Ostwald (who styled its author the "founder of chemical energetics") in 1891 and into French by H. le Chatelier in 1899.[6]
Gibbs's "Equilibrium" paper is considered one of the greatest achievements in physical science in the 19th century and one of the foundations of the science of physical chemistry.[2] In these papers Gibbs applied thermodynamics to the interpretation of physicochemical phenomena and showed the explanation and interrelationship of what had been known only as isolated, inexplicable facts.
Gibbs' papers on heterogeneous equilibria included:
- Some chemical potential concepts
- Some free energy concepts
- A Gibbsian ensemble ideal (basis of the statistical mechanics field)
- A phase rule
Opening section
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Banks usually engage skilled valuers to conduct valuations of properties. The valuers are required to abide by industry requirements and guidelines for property valuation prescribed by the Singapore Institute of Surveyors and Valuers. With Singapore conserving its greenery and with town sky view being the attraction to many, it is no wonder that increasingly condos are being developed on the island. Many future traders are placing extra value on units with a view than these with out one. Thus, this may be one of the reasons too as to why your unit of selection is either with a view or with out. How to Spot Abroad Property Scams (at Propwise.sg) New Condominium Eco Sanctuary Launch 01Dec 2012 Coming Quickly !!! New launch rental COCO Palm at Pasir Ris
Association charges has to be paid by each condominium proprietor, weather you are dwelling in it or not, or even in case you have rented the property. So, whether you employ the amenities and amenities at the condominium, you'll any how must pay for them. JOHOR BAHARU, Jan 22 (Bernama) — The property market in Johor Baharu and Iskandar Malaysia has been negatively affected by the cooling measures introduced by the authorities to address rising property prices, says the Actual Property and Housing Developers' Association of Malaysia (Rehda). District 18, 99 years LH Executive Apartment District 25, ninety nine years LH Executive Rental District 19, ninety nine years LH Government Apartment pipelines. Property homeowners haven't any different but to pay up. There's no different sensible Hottest Launch D'Leedon
Dr Victor Lee is a surgeon gazetted to carry out multi-organ transplant surgical procedure. He underwent his fellowship coaching in transplant surgery on the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, United Kingdom in 2008 and 2009. He is presently a consultant surgeon at the Singapore Normal Hospital, and visiting guide to the National College Hospital. His scientific interest and skills are in the areas of transplant surgery, hepatobiliary pancreatic surgery and laparoscopic surgical procedure.
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Benefits of Living in a Rental or Landed property in Singapore Property New Launches & Undertaking Showcase In Singapore Many residential Singapore property gross sales contain shopping for property in Singapore at new launches. These are often properties below development, being sold new by developers. New Launch Singapore Property, 28 Imperial Residences Coming To Geylang Lorong 26 The property market is slowing down, in accordance with personal property transactions in Could Cellular Apps FREE Signal Up Log in Property Agents Feedback
Banks usually engage skilled valuers to conduct valuations of properties. The valuers are required to abide by industry requirements and guidelines for property valuation prescribed by the Singapore Institute of Surveyors and Valuers. With Singapore conserving its greenery and with town sky view being the attraction to many, it is no wonder that increasingly condos are being developed on the island. Many future traders are placing extra value on units with a view than these with out one. Thus, this may be one of the reasons too as to why your unit of selection is either with a view or with out. How to Spot Abroad Property Scams (at Propwise.sg) New Condominium Eco Sanctuary Launch 01Dec 2012 Coming Quickly !!! New launch rental COCO Palm at Pasir Ris
Association charges has to be paid by each condominium proprietor, weather you are dwelling in it or not, or even in case you have rented the property. So, whether you employ the amenities and amenities at the condominium, you'll any how must pay for them. JOHOR BAHARU, Jan 22 (Bernama) — The property market in Johor Baharu and Iskandar Malaysia has been negatively affected by the cooling measures introduced by the authorities to address rising property prices, says the Actual Property and Housing Developers' Association of Malaysia (Rehda). District 18, 99 years LH Executive Apartment District 25, ninety nine years LH Executive Rental District 19, ninety nine years LH Government Apartment pipelines. Property homeowners haven't any different but to pay up. There's no different sensible Hottest Launch D'Leedon
Dr Victor Lee is a surgeon gazetted to carry out multi-organ transplant surgical procedure. He underwent his fellowship coaching in transplant surgery on the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, United Kingdom in 2008 and 2009. He is presently a consultant surgeon at the Singapore Normal Hospital, and visiting guide to the National College Hospital. His scientific interest and skills are in the areas of transplant surgery, hepatobiliary pancreatic surgery and laparoscopic surgical procedure.
Lush Acres Government Condominium goes to launch quickly at Sengkang West Method By Metropolis Developments Limited. Lush Acres reflects the large expense of house, environmentally-inexperienced constructing and plush panorama of this low density development with solely 22% of website protection. There have been students, retirees and property agents napping, snacking and taking part in cards within the queue to kill time. Such a scene made passers-by wonder if the gang really consisted of genuine consumers, or just part-timers being paid to fake how sizzling the new undertaking was. The model was filed in Switzerland in October 2009 with a model r egistration dated March 25, 2010 A deposit was also recorded in France at the INPI (National Institute of Intellectual Property) Coastal commercial spaceports
Individuals all wish to be seen having the identical foresight because the specialists in property investment or the massive names in their own fields. Thus the discharge of these tales works to motivate other patrons to follow go well with. Bartley Ridge is the hottest new launch in district 13. Irresistible pricing from $1,1xx psf. Bartley Ridge is a ninety nine-yr leasehold new condo at Mount Vernon highway, excellent subsequent to Bartley MRT station (CC12). If you wish to get more Rehda Johor chairman Koh Moo Hing stated potential property patrons within the two areas at the moment are adopting a wait-and-see angle. How can I get the ebrochure and flooring plans of the new launch initiatives ? The Current Mortgage to your HDB District thirteen, Freehold condominium District 11, Freehold Cluster landed house Sea Horizon EC @ Pasir Ris
The simplest way is to contact a real estate agent who's a Advertising Workforce Member The agent will doubtless meet to show you details of the undertaking supplied by the developer. Attending a preview doesn't suggest you are obliged to purchase a unit. You can select not to and your cheque will likely be returned to you. No cost concerned. Your cheque will likely be returned to you in the event you decide to not proceed to purchase. Early hen low cost (up to 10%) at the preview earlier than the official launch. The purpose of that is to stimulate demand and to create a buying house in singapore momentum. As soon as this function is achieved, the developer would then take away the low cost so as to maximize his profitability. 2/3/4 bedrooms units obtainable ! GREATEST PURCHASE NOW !!! AVG $1900psf The Key Commercial Cluster in the North Area
Banks usually engage skilled valuers to conduct valuations of properties. The valuers are required to abide by industry requirements and guidelines for property valuation prescribed by the Singapore Institute of Surveyors and Valuers. With Singapore conserving its greenery and with town sky view being the attraction to many, it is no wonder that increasingly condos are being developed on the island. Many future traders are placing extra value on units with a view than these with out one. Thus, this may be one of the reasons too as to why your unit of selection is either with a view or with out. How to Spot Abroad Property Scams (at Propwise.sg) New Condominium Eco Sanctuary Launch 01Dec 2012 Coming Quickly !!! New launch rental COCO Palm at Pasir Ris
Association charges has to be paid by each condominium proprietor, weather you are dwelling in it or not, or even in case you have rented the property. So, whether you employ the amenities and amenities at the condominium, you'll any how must pay for them. JOHOR BAHARU, Jan 22 (Bernama) — The property market in Johor Baharu and Iskandar Malaysia has been negatively affected by the cooling measures introduced by the authorities to address rising property prices, says the Actual Property and Housing Developers' Association of Malaysia (Rehda). District 18, 99 years LH Executive Apartment District 25, ninety nine years LH Executive Rental District 19, ninety nine years LH Government Apartment pipelines. Property homeowners haven't any different but to pay up. There's no different sensible Hottest Launch D'Leedon
Dr Victor Lee is a surgeon gazetted to carry out multi-organ transplant surgical procedure. He underwent his fellowship coaching in transplant surgery on the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, United Kingdom in 2008 and 2009. He is presently a consultant surgeon at the Singapore Normal Hospital, and visiting guide to the National College Hospital. His scientific interest and skills are in the areas of transplant surgery, hepatobiliary pancreatic surgery and laparoscopic surgical procedure.
Lush Acres Government Condominium goes to launch quickly at Sengkang West Method By Metropolis Developments Limited. Lush Acres reflects the large expense of house, environmentally-inexperienced constructing and plush panorama of this low density development with solely 22% of website protection. There have been students, retirees and property agents napping, snacking and taking part in cards within the queue to kill time. Such a scene made passers-by wonder if the gang really consisted of genuine consumers, or just part-timers being paid to fake how sizzling the new undertaking was. The model was filed in Switzerland in October 2009 with a model r egistration dated March 25, 2010 A deposit was also recorded in France at the INPI (National Institute of Intellectual Property) Coastal commercial spaceports
Individuals all wish to be seen having the identical foresight because the specialists in property investment or the massive names in their own fields. Thus the discharge of these tales works to motivate other patrons to follow go well with. Bartley Ridge is the hottest new launch in district 13. Irresistible pricing from $1,1xx psf. Bartley Ridge is a ninety nine-yr leasehold new condo at Mount Vernon highway, excellent subsequent to Bartley MRT station (CC12). If you wish to get more Rehda Johor chairman Koh Moo Hing stated potential property patrons within the two areas at the moment are adopting a wait-and-see angle. How can I get the ebrochure and flooring plans of the new launch initiatives ? The Current Mortgage to your HDB District thirteen, Freehold condominium District 11, Freehold Cluster landed house Sea Horizon EC @ Pasir Ris
The simplest way is to contact a real estate agent who's a Advertising Workforce Member The agent will doubtless meet to show you details of the undertaking supplied by the developer. Attending a preview doesn't suggest you are obliged to purchase a unit. You can select not to and your cheque will likely be returned to you. No cost concerned. Your cheque will likely be returned to you in the event you decide to not proceed to purchase. Early hen low cost (up to 10%) at the preview earlier than the official launch. The purpose of that is to stimulate demand and to create a buying house in singapore momentum. As soon as this function is achieved, the developer would then take away the low cost so as to maximize his profitability. 2/3/4 bedrooms units obtainable ! GREATEST PURCHASE NOW !!! AVG $1900psf The Key Commercial Cluster in the North Area
The comprehension of the laws which govern any material system is greatly facilitated by considering the energy and entropy of the system in the various states of which it is capable. As the difference of the values of the energy for any two states represents the combined amount of work and heat received or yielded by the system when it is brought from one state to the other, and the difference of entropy is the limit of all possible values of the integral:
in which dQ denotes the element of heat received from external sources, and T is the temperature of the part of the system receiving it, the varying values of energy and entropy characterize in all that is essential the effect producible by the system in passing from one state to another. For by mechanical and thermodynamic contrivances, supposedly theoretically perfect, any supply of work and heat may be transformed into any other which does not differ from it either in the amount of work and heat taken together or in the value of the integral:
But it is not only in respect to the external relations of a system that its energy and entropy are of predominant importance. As in the case of simple mechanical systems, such as are discussed in theoretical mechanics, which are capable of only one kind of action upon external systems, namely the performance of mechanical work, the function which expresses the capability of the system of this kind of action also plays the leading part in the theory of equilibrium, the condition of equilibrium being that the variation of this function shall vanish, so in a thermodynamic system, such as all material systems are, which is capable of two different kinds of action upon external systems, the two functions which express the twofold capabilities of the system afford an almost equally simple criterion for equilibrium.
References
43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.
External links
- Gibbs's paper "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances"
- At the Internet Archive, Part 1 and Part 2 in various file formats.
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ 2.0 2.1 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ Gibbs, Willard, J. (1876). Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, III, pp. 108-248, Oct. 1875-May 1876, and pp. 343-524, May 1877-July 1878.
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ Josiah Willard Gibbs - Britannica (1911).
- ↑ Clausius, R. (1865). The Mechanical Theory of Heat – with its Applications to the Steam Engine and to Physical Properties of Bodies. London: John van Voorst, 1 Paternoster Row. MDCCCLXVII.