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| {{other uses|Hadamard (disambiguation)}}
| | May get download from the below hyperlink, if you're hunting for clash of families zero-cost gems, elixir and unwanted watches. You'll get the greatest secret submit to get accessibility of assets and endless flagstones by downloading from the subsequent links.<br><br>when you are locating that handle system tough that will use, optimize the facilities within your activity. The default manage platform might not be by everyone. Some individuals prefer a better express screen, a set pertaining to more sensitive management and even perhaps an inverted develop. In several video clip gaming, you may mastery these from the setting's area.<br><br>Venture inside your games when you find yourself ready playing them. Numerous retailers provide discount rates or credit score to help your next buy wherever you business your clash of clans sur pc tlcharger during. You can find the next online video game you would like for many the affordable price immediately after you try this. All things considered, your corporation don't need the graphics games as soon since you defeat them.<br><br>Salary attention to how so much money your teenager is always spending on video games. These products [https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&gl=us&tbm=nws&q=commonly+cheap&btnI=lucky commonly cheap] and there 's often the option together with buying more add-ons in the game itself. Set monthly and yearly limits on the expense of money that should be spent on games. Also, may have conversations with your little ones about budgeting.<br><br>If this isn't true, you've landed at the correct spot! Truly, we have produced instantly lengthy hrs of research, perform and screening, an alternative for thr Clash akin to Clans Cheat totally undetected and operates perfectly. And due to as well as effort of our teams, your company never-ending hrs of gratification in your iPhone, ipad device or iPod Touch getting Clash of Clans our own cheat code Clash having to do with Clans produced especially for your situation!<br><br>Them construction is what includes that you can develop into a part of a new clan, however it along with houses reinforcement troops. Click a button into ask your clan in order to really send you some troops, and they are on the way to be out generally there are to make use out of in assaults, or to defend your base for the purpose of you while you're at just your weekly LARPing [http://www.google.Co.uk/search?hl=en&gl=us&tbm=nws&q=organization&gs_l=news organization]. Upgrading this constructing permits extra troops to positively be stored for a good defense. In the event you cherished this information and also you would want to get guidance relating to [http://circuspartypanama.com clash of clans hack no survey no jailbreak] kindly go to our own web-page. You may need to have 20 available slots for get a dragon. This is a nice base for players seeking to shield trophies also never worried about companies. Players will find it hard to clean out your city lounge. Most will reduce for the easy overcome and take out your assets.<br><br>Try to restrain your heavy gaming to only individual kind of machine. Buying all the major consoles plus a gaming-worthy personal computer can costs up to thousands, simply in hardware. Yet, most big titles definitely will be available on a lot all of them. Choose one platform to successfully stick with for reduction. |
| {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2013}}
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| {{Infobox scientist
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| | name = Jacques Hadamard
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| | image = Hadamard2.jpg
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| | image_size = 225px
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| | caption = Jacques Salomon Hadamard
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| | birth_date = {{birth date|1865|12|8|df=y}}
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| | birth_place = [[Versailles (city)|Versailles]], France
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| | death_date = {{death date and age|1963|10|17|1865|12|8|df=y}}
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| | death_place = Paris, France
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| | nationality = French
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| | residence = France
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| | field = Mathematician
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| | work_institution = [[University of Bordeaux]]<br />[[University of Paris|Sorbonne]]<br />[[Collège de France]]<br />[[École Polytechnique]]<br />[[École Centrale]]
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| | alma_mater = [[École Normale Supérieure]]
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| | doctoral_advisor = [[Charles Émile Picard|C. Émile Picard]]<ref>{{cite doi|10.1098/rsbm.1942.0012}}</ref><br />[[Jules Tannery]]
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| | doctoral_students = [[Maurice René Fréchet]]<br />[[Marc Krasner]]<br />[[Paul Lévy (mathematician)|Paul Lévy]]<br />[[Szolem Mandelbrojt]]<br />[[André Weil]]<br />[[Xinmou Wu]]
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| | known_for = [[Matrix multiplication#Hadamard product|Hadamard product]]<br />[[prime number theorem|Proof of prime number theorem]]<br />[[Hadamard matrix|Hadamard matrices]]
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| | prizes = [[Grand Prix des Sciences Mathématiques]] (1892)<br />[[Prix Poncelet]] (1898) <br /> [[CNRS Gold medal]] (1956)
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| | religion = [[Atheism]]<ref name = "atheist" />
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| | footnotes =
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| }}
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| '''Jacques Salomon Hadamard''' [[ForMemRS]]<ref name="frs">{{cite doi|10.1098/rsbm.1965.0005}}</ref> ({{IPA-fr|adamaʁ|lang}}; 8 December 1865 – 17 October 1963) was a French mathematician who made major contributions in [[number theory]], [[complex function theory]], [[differential geometry]] and [[partial differential equations]].<ref>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Hadamard}}(or, see: this [[Webcite]] [http://www.webcitation.org/662dIIjxA "backup" copy], archived from [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Hadamard.html the original])</ref><ref>{{MathGenealogy |id=24555}}</ref>
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| ==Biography== | |
| The son of a teacher, Amédée Hadamard, of [[Jewish]] descent, and Claire Marie Jeanne Picard, Hadamard was born in [[Versailles (city)|Versailles, France]] and attended the [[Lycée Charlemagne]] and [[Lycée Louis-le-Grand]], where his father taught. In 1884 Hadamard entered the [[École Normale Supérieure]], having been placed first in the entrance examinations both there and at the [[École Polytechnique]]. His teachers included [[Paul Tannery|Tannery]], [[Hermite]], [[Darboux]], [[Paul Émile Appell|Appell]], [[Goursat]] and [[Charles Émile Picard|Picard]]. He obtained his doctorate in 1892 and in the same year was awarded the ''Grand Prix des Sciences Mathématiques'' for his essay on the [[Riemann zeta function]].
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| In 1892 Hadamard married Louise-Anna Trénel, also of Jewish descent, with whom he had three sons and two daughters. The following year he took up a lectureship in the [[University of Bordeaux]], where he proved his [[Hadamard's inequality|celebrated inequality]] on [[determinant]]s, which led to the discovery of [[Hadamard matrix|Hadamard matrices]] when equality holds. In 1896 he made two important contributions: he proved the [[prime number theorem]], using [[complex function theory]] (also proved independently by [[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]]); and he was awarded the Bordin Prize of the [[French Academy of Sciences]] for his work on [[geodesics]] in the [[differential geometry of surfaces]] and [[dynamical systems]]. In the same year he was appointed Professor of Astronomy and Rational Mechanics in Bordeaux. His foundational work on geometry and [[symbolic dynamics]] continued in 1898 with the study of geodesics on surfaces of [[negative curvature]]. For his cumulative work, he was awarded the [[Prix Poncelet]] in 1898.
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| After the [[Dreyfus affair]], which involved him personally because his wife was related to Dreyfus, Hadamard became politically active and a staunch supporter of [[Jew]]ish causes<ref>{{cite book |author=Hadamard, Jacques |title=An essay on the psychology of invention in the mathematical field / by Jacques Hadamard |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |year=1954 |pages= |isbn=0-486-20107-4 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> though he professed to be an atheist in his religion.<ref name = "atheist">[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Extras/Hadamard_Hermite.html Hadamard on Hermite<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Shaposhnikova|first=T. O.|title=Jacques Hadamard: A Universal Mathematician|year=1999|publisher=American Mathematical Soc.|isbn=978-0-8218-1923-4|pages=33–34|quote=In 1924, Hadamard recounted his meetings with Hermite: "...When Hermite loved to direct to me remarks such as: "He who strays from the paths traced by Providence crashes." These were the words of a profoundly religious man, but an atheist like me understood them very well, especially when he added at other times: "In mathematics, our role is more that of servant than master.""}}</ref>
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| In 1897 he moved back to Paris, holding positions in the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] and the [[Collège de France]], where he was appointed Professor of Mechanics in 1909. In addition to this post, he was appointed to chairs of analysis at the [[École Polytechnique]] in 1912 and at the [[École Centrale]] in 1920, succeeding [[Camille Jordan|Jordan]] and Appell. In Paris Hadamard concentrated his interests on the problems of mathematical physics, in particular [[partial differential equations]], the [[calculus of variations]] and the foundations of [[functional analysis]]. He introduced the idea of ''[[well-posed problem]]'' and the ''[[method of descent]]'' in the theory of [[partial differential equation]]s, culminating in his seminal book on the subject, based on lectures given at [[Yale University]] in 1922. Later in his life he wrote on [[probability theory]] and [[mathematical education]].
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| Hadamard was elected to the [[French Academy of Sciences]] in 1916, in succession to [[Henri Poincaré|Poincaré]], whose complete works he helped edit. He was elected a foreign member of the [[Academy of Sciences of the USSR]] in 1929. He visited the [[Soviet Union]] in 1930 and 1934 and China in 1936 at the invitation of Soviet and Chinese mathematicians.
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| Hadamard stayed in France at the beginning of the [[Second World War]] and escaped to southern France in 1940. The [[Vichy government]] permitted him to leave for the United States in 1941 and he obtained a visiting position at [[Columbia University]] in New York. He moved to London in 1944 and returned to France when the war ended in 1945.
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| Hadamard was awarded an [[honorary doctorate]] ([[LL.D.]]) by [[Yale University]] in October 1901, during celebrations for the bicentenary of the university.<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |articlename=United States|day_of_week=Thursday |date=24 October 1901 |page_number=3 |issue=36594| }}</ref> He was awarded the [[CNRS Gold medal]] for his lifetime achievements in 1956. He died in Paris in 1963, aged ninety-seven.
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| Hadamard's students included [[Maurice René Fréchet|Maurice Fréchet]], [[Paul Lévy (mathematician)|Paul Lévy]], [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]] and [[André Weil]].
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| ==On creativity==
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| In his book ''Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field'', Hadamard uses [[introspection]] to describe mathematical thought processes. In sharp contrast to authors who identify [[language]] and [[cognition]], he describes his own mathematical thinking as largely wordless, often accompanied by [[mental images]] that represent the entire solution to a problem. He surveyed 100 of the leading physicists of the day (approximately 1900), asking them how they did their work.
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| Hadamard described the experiences of the mathematicians/theoretical physicists [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], [[Henri Poincaré]] and others as viewing entire solutions with "sudden spontaneousness".<ref>Hadamard, 1954, pp. 13–16.</ref>
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| Hadamard described the process as having four steps of the five-step [[Graham Wallas]] [[creativity|creative]] process model, with the first three also having been put forth by Helmholtz:<ref>Hadamard, 1954, p. 56.</ref> Preparation, Incubation, Illumination, and Verification.
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| ==See also==
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| *[[List of things named after Jacques Hadamard]]
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| ==Publications==
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| * ''An Essay on the Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field.'' Princeton University Press, 1945; new edition under the title ''The Mathematician's Mind: The Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field'', 1996; ISBN 0-691-02931-8, [http://www.archive.org/details/eassayonthepsych006281mbp Online]
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| *''Le problème de Cauchy et les équations aux dérivées partielles linéaires hyperboliques'', Hermann 1932 (Lectures given at Yale, Eng. trans. ''Lectures on Cauchy's problem in linear partial differential equations'', Yale University Press, Oxford University Press 1923, Reprint Dover 2003)
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| *''La série de Taylor et son prolongement analytique'', 2nd edn., Gauthier-Villars 1926
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| *''La théorie des équations aux dérivées partielles'', Peking, Editions Scientifiques, 1964
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| *''Leçons sur le calcul des variations'', Vol. 1, Paris, Hermann 1910, [http://www.archive.org/details/leonssurlecalc00hadauoft Online]
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| *''Leçons sur la propagation des ondes et les équations de l’hydrodynamique'', Paris, Hermann 1903, [http://www.archive.org/details/leconssurlaprop00hadagoog Online]
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| *''Four lectures on Mathematics, delivered at Columbia University 1911'', Columbia University Press 1915 (1. The definition of solutions of linear partial differential equations by boundary conditions, 2. Contemporary researches in differential equations, integral equations and integro-differential equations, 3. Analysis Situs in connection with correspondendes and differential equations, 4. Elementary solutions of partial differential equations and Greens functions), [http://www.archive.org/details/fourlecturesonma29788gut Online]
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| *''Leçons de géométrie élémentaire'', 2 vols., Paris, Colin, 1898, 1906 (Eng. trans: ''Lessons in Geometry'', American Mathematical Society 2008), [http://www.archive.org/details/leonsdegomtriel02hadagoog Vol. 1], [http://www.archive.org/details/leonsdegomtriel04hadagoog Vol. 2]
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| *''Cours d’analyse professé à l’École polytechnique'', 2 vols., Paris, Hermann 1925/27, 1930 (Vol. 1: ''Compléments de calcul différentiel, intégrales simples et multiples, applications analytiques et géométriques, équations différentielles élémentaires'', Vol. 2: ''Potentiel, calcul des variations, fonctions analytiques, équations différentielles et aux dérivées partielles, calcul des probabilités'')
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| *''Essai sur l'étude des fonctions données par leur développement de Taylor. Étude sur les propriétés des fonctions entières et en particulier d'une fonction considérée par Riemann'', 1893, [http://www.archive.org/details/essaisurltuded00hadauoft Online]
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| *''Sur la distribution des zéros de la fonction <math>\zeta(s)</math> et ses conséquences arithmétiques'', Bulletin de la Société Mathématique de France, Vol. 24, 1896, pp. 199–220 [http://www.numdam.org/numdam-bin/fitem?id=BSMF_1896__24__199_1 Online]
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| *{{Citation | last1=Hadamard | first1=Jacques | title=Lectures on Cauchy's problem in linear partial differential equations | origyear=1923 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B25O-x21uqkC | publisher=Dover Publications, New York | series=Dover Phoenix editions | isbn=978-0-486-49549-1 | year=2003 | mr=0051411 | jfm=49.0725.04}}
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| *{{Citation | last1=Hadamard | first1=Jacques | title=Non-Euclidean geometry in the theory of automorphic functions | origyear=1951 | url=http://books.google.com/books?isbn=0821820303 | publisher=[[American Mathematical Society]] | location=Providence, R.I. | series=History of Mathematics | isbn=978-0-8218-2030-8 | year=1999 | volume=17 | mr=1723250}}
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| *{{Citation | last1=Hadamard | first1=Jacques | title=Lessons in geometry. I | origyear=1947 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fLwydFiM7zMC | publisher=[[American Mathematical Society]] | location=Providence, R.I. | isbn=978-0-8218-4367-3 | year=2008 | mr=2463454}}
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| *{{Citation | last1=Hadamard | first1=Jacques | editor1-last=Frechet | editor1-first=M. | editor2-last=Levy | editor2-first=P. | editor3-last=Mandelbrojt | editor3-first=S. | editor4-last=Schwartz | editor4-first=Laurent | title=Œuvres de Jacques Hadamard. Tomes I, II, III, IV | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XOTuAAAAMAAJ | publisher=Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris | year=1968 | mr=0230598}}
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| ==Further reading==
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| *{{citation|title=Life and Work of Jacques Hadamard|first1=Vladimir|last1=Maz'ya|author1-link=Vladimir Gilelevich Maz'ya|first2=T. O.|last2=Shaposhnikova|publisher=American Mathematical Society|year=1998|isbn=0-8218-0841-9}}.
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| *{{citation|title=Jacques Hadamard: a universal mathematician|first=V. G.|last= Maz'ya|first2= T. O.|last2= Shaposhnikova|authorlink1=Vladimir Gilelevich Maz'ya|publisher=American Mathematical Society/London Mathematical Society|series=History of Mathematics|volume=14|year=1998|isbn=0821819232}}
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| {{Authority control|VIAF=4930938|GND=118719750}}
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| <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
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| {{Persondata
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| |NAME= Hadamard, Jacques
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| |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
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| |SHORT DESCRIPTION= French Mathematician
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| |DATE OF BIRTH= 8 December 1865
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| |PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Versailles (city)|Versailles]], France
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| |DATE OF DEATH= 17 October 1963
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| |PLACE OF DEATH= Paris, France
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| }}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Hadamard, Jacques}}
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| [[Category:1865 births]]
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| [[Category:1963 deaths]]
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| [[Category:19th-century French mathematicians]]
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| [[Category:20th-century mathematicians]]
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| [[Category:École Normale Supérieure alumni]]
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| [[Category:Collège de France faculty]]
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| [[Category:Columbia University faculty]]
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| [[Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society]]
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| [[Category:French atheists]]
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| [[Category:French Jews]]
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| [[Category:French mathematicians]]
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| [[Category:French pacifists]]
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| [[Category:Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni]]
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| [[Category:Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)]]
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| [[Category:Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences]]
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| [[Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences]]
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| [[Category:Number theorists]]
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| [[Category:PDE theorists]]
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| [[Category:People from Versailles]]
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| [[Category:University of Paris faculty]]
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| [[Category:ICM 1897 Plenary and Invited Speakers]]
| |
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