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| {{about|[[vector space]]s equipped with some kind of multiplication|other uses of the term "algebra"|algebra}}
| | I truly like to introduce myself to you, I am Marshall though I don't really like being called like exactly who. Managing people is my day job now. To fix computers just what my friends and I participate in. Michigan is his birth place. I'm not good at webdesign but you ought to check my website: http://euroseonews.wordpress.com/ |
| {{refimprove|date=March 2010}}
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| {{Algebraic structures |Algebra}}
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| In [[mathematics]], an '''algebra over a field''' is a [[vector space]] equipped with a [[bilinear map|bilinear]] [[product (mathematics)|product]]. An '''algebra''' such that the product is [[associative]] and has an [[identity element|identity]] is therefore a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] that is also a vector space, and thus equipped with a [[field (mathematics)|field]] of scalars. Such an algebra is called here a [[Unital algebra|unital]] [[associative algebra]] for clarity, because there are also [[nonassociative algebra]]s.
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| In other words, an algebra over a field is a [[set (mathematics)|set]] together with operations of multiplication, [[addition]], and [[scalar multiplication]] by elements of the underlying field, that satisfy the axioms implied by "vector space" and "bilinear".<ref>See also Hazewinkel et al. (2004), {{Google books quote|id=AibpdVNkFDYC|page=3|text=an algebra over a field k|p. 3}}.</ref>
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| One may generalize this notion by replacing the field of scalars by a [[commutative ring]], and thus defining an [[Algebra (ring theory)|algebra over a ring]].
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| Because of the ubiquity of associative algebras, and because many textbooks teach more associative algebra than nonassociative algebra, it is common for authors to use the term ''algebra'' to mean ''associative algebra''. However, this does not diminish the importance of nonassociative algebras, and there are texts that give both structures and names equal priority.
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| == Definition and motivation ==
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| ===First example: The complex numbers ===
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| Any [[complex number]] may be written ''a'' + ''bi'', where ''a'' and ''b'' are [[real number]]s and ''i'' is the [[imaginary unit]]. In other words, a complex number is represented by the [[Euclidean vector|vector]] (''a'', ''b'') over the field of real numbers. So the complex numbers form a two-dimensional real vector space, where addition is given by (''a'', ''b'') + (''c'', ''d'') = (''a'' + ''c'', ''b'' + ''d'') and scalar multiplication is given by ''c''(''a'', ''b'') = (''ca'', ''cb''), where all of ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' and ''d'' are real numbers. We use the symbol · to multiply two vectors together, which we use complex multiplication to define: (''a'', ''b'') · (''c'', ''d'') = (''ac'' − ''bd'', ''ad'' + ''bc'').
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| The following statements are basic properties of the complex numbers. Let '''x''', '''y''', '''z''' be complex numbers, and let ''a'', ''b'' be real numbers.
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| :* ('''x''' + '''y''') · '''z''' = ('''x''' · '''z''') + ('''y''' · '''z'''). In other words, multiplying a complex number by the sum of two other complex numbers, is the same as multiplying by each number in the sum, and then adding.
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| :* (a'''x''') · (b'''y''') = (ab) ('''x''' · '''y'''). This shows that complex multiplication is compatible with the scalar multiplication by the real numbers.
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| This example fits into the following definition by taking the field ''K'' to be the real numbers, and the vector space ''A'' to be the complex numbers.
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| === Definition ===
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| Let ''K'' be a field, and let ''A'' be a [[vector space]] over ''K'' equipped with an additional [[binary operation]] from ''A'' × ''A'' to ''A'', denoted here by · (i.e. if '''x''' and '''y''' are any two elements of ''A'', '''x''' · '''y''' is the ''product'' of '''x''' and '''y'''). Then ''A'' is an '''algebra''' over ''K'' if the following identities hold for any three elements '''x''', '''y''', and '''z''' of ''A'', and all elements ("[[scalar (mathematics)|scalar]]s") ''a'' and ''b'' of ''K'':
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| * Left [[distributivity]]: ('''x''' + '''y''') · '''z''' = '''x''' · '''z''' + '''y''' · '''z'''
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| * Right distributivity: '''x''' · ('''y''' + '''z''') = '''x''' · '''y''' + '''x''' · '''z'''
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| * Compatibility with scalars: (''a'''''x''') · (''b'''''y''') = (''ab'') ('''x''' · '''y''').
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| These three axioms are another way of saying that the binary operation is [[bilinear operator|bilinear]]. An algebra over ''K'' is sometimes also called a ''K-algebra'', and ''K'' is called the ''base field'' of ''A''. The binary operation is often referred to as ''multiplication'' in ''A''. The convention adopted in this article is that multiplication of elements of an algebra is not necessarily [[associativity|associative]], although some authors use the term ''algebra'' to refer to an [[associative algebra]].
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| Notice that when a binary operation on a vector space is [[commutative]], as in the above example of the complex numbers, it is left distributive exactly when it is right distributive. But in general, for non-commutative operations (such as the next example of the quaternions), they are not equivalent, and therefore require separate axioms.
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| === A motivating example: quaternions ===
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| {{main|Quaternion}}
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| The [[real numbers]] may be viewed as a ''one''-dimensional vector space with a compatible multiplication, and hence a one-dimensional algebra over itself. We saw above that the complex numbers form a ''two''-dimensional vector space over the field of real numbers, and hence form a two dimension algebra over the reals. In both these examples, every [[null vector|non-zero vector]] has an [[Multiplicative inverse|inverse]]. It is natural to ask whether one can similarly define a multiplication on a ''three''-dimensional real vector space such that every non-zero element has an inverse. The answer is no (see [[normed division algebra]]s).
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| Although there are no division algebras in 3 dimensions, in 1843, the [[quaternions]] were defined and provided the now famous 4-dimensional example of an algebra over the real numbers, where one can not only multiply vectors, but also divide. Any quaternion may be written as (''a'', ''b'', ''c'', ''d'') = ''a'' + ''b'''''i''' + ''c'''''j''' + ''d'''''k'''. Unlike the complex numbers, the quaternions are an example of a [[Commutativity|non-commutative]] algebra: for instance, (0,1,0,0) · (0,0,1,0) = (0,0,0,1) but (0,0,1,0) · (0,1,0,0) = (0,0,0,−1).
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| The quaternions were soon followed by several other [[hypercomplex number]] systems, which were the early examples of algebras over a field.
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| ===Another motivating example: the cross product===
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| {{main|Cross product}}
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| Previous examples are associative algebras. An example of a nonassociative algebra is a three dimensional vector space equipped with the [[cross product]]. This is a simple example of a class of nonassociative algebras, which is widely used in [[mathematics]] and [[physics]], the [[Lie algebra]]s.
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| == Basic concepts ==
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| === Algebra homomorphisms ===
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| {{main|Algebra homomorphism}}
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| Given ''K''-algebras ''A'' and ''B'', a ''K''-algebra [[homomorphism]] is a ''K''-[[linear map]] ''f'': ''A'' → ''B'' such that ''f''('''xy''') = ''f''('''x''') ''f''('''y''') for all '''x''','''y''' in ''A''. The space of all ''K''-algebra homomorphisms between ''A'' and ''B'' is frequently written as
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| :<math>\mathbf{Hom}_{K\text{-alg}} (A,B).</math>
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| A ''K''-algebra [[isomorphism]] is a [[bijective]] ''K''-algebra morphism. For all practical purposes, isomorphic algebras differ only by notation.
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| === Subalgebras and ideals ===
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| {{main|Substructure}}
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| A ''subalgebra'' of an algebra over a field ''K'' is a [[linear subspace]] that has the property that the product of any two of its elements is again in the subspace. In other words, a subalgebra of an algebra is a subset of elements that is closed under addition, multiplication, and scalar multiplication. In symbols, we say that a subset ''L'' of a ''K''-algebra ''A'' is a subalgebra if for every ''x'', ''y'' in ''L'' and ''c'' in ''K'', we have that ''x'' · ''y'', ''x'' + ''y'', and ''cx'' are all in ''L''.
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| In the above example of the complex numbers viewed as a two-dimensional algebra over the real numbers, the one-dimensional real line is a subalgebra.
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| A ''left ideal'' of a ''K''-algebra is a linear subspace that has the property that any element of the subspace multiplied on the left by any element of the algebra produces an element of the subspace. In symbols, we say that a subset ''L'' of a ''K''-algebra ''A'' is a left ideal if for every ''x'' and ''y'' in ''L'', ''z'' in ''A'' and ''c'' in ''K'', we have the following three statements.
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| *1) ''x'' + ''y'' is in ''L'' (''L'' is closed under addition),
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| *2) ''cx'' is in ''L'' (''L'' is closed under scalar multiplication),
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| *3) ''z'' · ''x'' is in ''L'' (''L'' is closed under left multiplication by arbitrary elements).
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| If (3) were replaced with ''x'' · ''z'' is in ''L'', then this would define a ''right ideal''. A ''two-sided ideal'' is a subset that is both a left and a right ideal. The term ''ideal'' on its own is usually taken to mean a two-sided ideal. Of course when the algebra is commutative, then all of these notions of ideal are equivalent. Notice that conditions (1) and (2) together are equivalent to ''L'' being a linear subspace of ''A''. It follows from condition (3) that every left or right ideal is a subalgebra.
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| It is important to notice that this definition is different from the definition of an [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal of a ring]], in that here we require the condition (2). Of course if the algebra is [[Unital algebra|unital]], then condition (3) implies condition (2).
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| === Extension of scalars ===
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| {{main|Extension of scalars}}
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| If we have a [[field extension]] ''F''/''K'', which is to say a bigger field ''F'' that contains ''K'', then there is a natural way to construct an algebra over ''F'' from any algebra over ''K''. It is the same construction one uses to make a vector space over a bigger field, namely the tensor product <math> V_F:=V \otimes_K F </math>. So if ''A'' is an algebra over ''K'', then <math>A_F</math> is an algebra over ''F''.
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| == Kinds of algebras and examples ==
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| Algebras over fields come in many different types. These types are specified by insisting on some further axioms, such as [[commutativity]] or [[associativity]] of the multiplication operation, which are not required in the broad definition of an algebra. The theories corresponding to the different types of algebras are often very different.
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| === Unital algebras ===
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| {{main|Unital algebra}}
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| An algebra is ''unital'' or ''unitary'' if it has a [[Unit (algebra)|unit]] or identity element ''I'' with ''Ix'' = ''x'' = ''xI'' for all ''x'' in the algebra.
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| === Zero algebras ===
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| <!--The term '''zero algebra''' may have other uses outside ring theory-->
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| An algebra is called '''zero algebra''' if ''uv'' = 0 for all ''u'', ''v'' in the algebra.<ref>João B. Prolla, ''Approximation of vector valued functions'', Elsevier, 1977, p. 65</ref> Not to be confused with the algebra with one element. It is inherently non-unital (except in the case of only one element), associative and commutative.
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| One may define a '''unital zero algebra''' by taking the [[direct sum of modules]] of a field (or more generally a ring) ''k'' and a ''k'' vector space (or module) ''V'', and defining the product of two elements of ''V'' to be zero. That is, if ''λ'', ''μ'' ∈ ''k'' and ''u'', ''v'' ∈ ''V'' then (''λ''+''u'') (''μ''+''v'') = ''λμ'' + (''λv''+''μu''). If ''e''<sub>1</sub>, ... ''e''<sub>''d''</sub> is a basis of ''V'', the unital zero algebra is the quotient of the polynomial ring ''k''[''E''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''E''<sub>''n''</sub>] by the [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] generated by the ''E''<sub>''i''</sub>''E''<sub>''j''</sub> for every pair (''i'',''j'').
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| An example of unital zero algebra is the algebra of [[dual number]]s, which is the unital zero '''R''' algebra which is built from a one dimensional real vector space.
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| These unital zero algebras may be more generally useful, as they allow to translate any general property of the algebras to properties of vector spaces or [[module (mathematics)|modules]]. For example, the theory of [[Gröbner basis|Gröbner bases]] was introduced by [[Bruno Buchberger]] for [[ideal (ring theory)|ideals]] in a polynomial ring ''R''=''k''[''x''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''x''<sub>''n''</sub>] over a field. The construction of the unital zero algebra over a free ''R'' module allows to extend directly this theory as a Gröbner basis theory for sub modules of a free module. This extension allows, for computing a Gröbner basis of a submodule, to use, without any modification, any algorithm and any software for computing Gröbner bases of ideals.
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| === Associative algebras ===
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| {{main|Associative algebra}}
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| * the algebra of all ''n''-by-''n'' [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]] over the field (or commutative ring) ''K''. Here the multiplication is ordinary [[matrix multiplication]].
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| * [[Group algebra]]s, where a [[group (mathematics)|group]] serves as a basis of the vector space and algebra multiplication extends group multiplication.
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| * the commutative algebra ''K''[''x''] of all [[polynomial]]s over ''K''.
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| * algebras of [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, such as the '''R'''-algebra of all real-valued [[continuous function|continuous]] functions defined on the [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] [0,1], or the '''C'''-algebra of all [[holomorphic function]]s defined on some fixed open set in the [[complex plane]]. These are also commutative.
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| * [[Incidence algebra]]s are built on certain [[partially ordered set]]s.
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| * algebras of [[linear operator]]s, for example on a [[Hilbert space]]. Here the algebra multiplication is given by the [[functional composition|composition]] of operators. These algebras also carry a [[topological space|topology]]; many of them are defined on an underlying [[Banach space]], which turns them into [[Banach algebra]]s. If an involution is given as well, we obtain [[B*-algebra]]s and [[C*-algebra]]s. These are studied in [[functional analysis]].
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| === Non-associative algebras ===
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| {{main|Non-associative algebra}}
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| A ''non-associative algebra''<ref>Richard D. Schafer, ''An Introduction to Nonassociative Algebras'' (1996) ISBN 0-486-68813-5 [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25156 Gutenberg eText]</ref> (or ''distributive algebra'') over a field ''K'' is a ''K''-vector space ''A'' equipped with a ''K''-[[bilinear map]] <math>A \times A \rightarrow A</math>. The usage of "non-associative" here is meant to convey that associativity is not assumed, but it does not mean it is prohibited. That is, it means "not necessarily associative" just as "noncommutative" means "not necessarily commutative".
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| Examples detailed in the main article include:
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| * [[Octonion]]s
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| * [[Lie algebra]]s
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| * [[Jordan algebra]]s
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| * [[Alternative algebra]]s
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| * [[Flexible algebra]]s
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| * [[Power-associative algebra]]s
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| ==Algebras and rings==
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| The definition of an associative ''K''-algebra with unit is also frequently given in an alternative way. In this case, an algebra over a field ''K'' is a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] ''A'' together with a [[ring homomorphism]]
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| :<math>\eta\colon K\to Z(A),</math>
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| where ''Z''(''A'') is the [[center (algebra)|center]] of ''A''. Since ''η'' is a ring morphism, then one must have either that ''A'' is the trivial ring, or that ''η'' is [[injective function|injective]]. This definition is equivalent to that above, with scalar multiplication
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| :<math>K\times A \to A</math>
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| given by
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| :<math>(k,a) \mapsto \eta(k) a.</math>
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| Given two such associative unital ''K''-algebras ''A'' and ''B'', a [[Unital algebra|unital]] ''K''-algebra morphism ''f'': ''A'' → ''B'' is a ring morphism that commutes with the scalar multiplication defined by ''η'', which one may write as
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| :<math>f(ka)=kf(a)</math>
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| for all <math>k\in K</math> and <math>a \in A</math>. In other words, the following diagram commutes:
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| :<math>\begin{matrix}
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| && K && \\
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| & \eta_A \swarrow & \, & \eta_B \searrow & \\
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| A && \begin{matrix} f \\ \longrightarrow \end{matrix} && B
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| \end{matrix}</math>
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| == Structure coefficients ==
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| For algebras over a field, the bilinear multiplication from ''A'' × ''A'' to ''A'' is completely determined by the multiplication of [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] elements of ''A''.
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| Conversely, once a basis for ''A'' has been chosen, the products of basis elements can be set arbitrarily, and then extended in a unique way to a bilinear operator on ''A'', i.e., so the resulting multiplication satisfies the algebra laws.
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| Thus, given the field ''K'', any finite-dimensional algebra can be specified [[up to]] [[isomorphism]] by giving its [[dimension (linear algebra)|dimension]] (say ''n''), and specifying ''n''<sup>3</sup> ''structure coefficients'' ''c''<sub>''i'',''j'',''k''</sub>, which are [[scalar (mathematics)|scalars]].
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| These structure coefficients determine the multiplication in ''A'' via the following rule:
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| : <math>\mathbf{e}_{i} \mathbf{e}_{j} = \sum_{k=1}^n c_{i,j,k} \mathbf{e}_{k}</math>
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| where '''e'''<sub>1</sub>,...,'''e'''<sub>''n''</sub> form a basis of ''A''.
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| Note however that several different sets of structure coefficients can give rise to isomorphic algebras.
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| When the algebra can be endowed with a [[metric space|metric]], then the structure coefficients are written with upper and lower indices, so as to distinguish their transformation properties under coordinate transformations. Specifically, lower indices are [[covariance and contravariance of vectors|covariant]] indices, and transform via [[pullback (differential geometry)|pullback]]s, while upper indices are [[covariance and contravariance of vectors|contravariant]], transforming under [[Pushforward (differential)|pushforward]]s. Thus, in [[mathematical physics]], the structure coefficients are often written ''c''<sub>''i'',''j''</sub><sup>''k''</sup>, and their defining rule is written using the [[Einstein notation]] as
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| : '''e'''<sub>''i''</sub>'''e'''<sub>''j''</sub> = ''c''<sub>''i'',''j''</sub><sup>''k''</sup>'''e'''<sub>''k''</sub>.
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| If you apply this to vectors written in [[index notation]], then this becomes
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| : ('''xy''')<sup>''k''</sup> = ''c''<sub>''i'',''j''</sub><sup>''k''</sup>''x''<sup>''i''</sup>''y''<sup>''j''</sup>. | |
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| If ''K'' is only a commutative ring and not a field, then the same process works if ''A'' is a [[free module]] over ''K''. If it isn't, then the multiplication is still completely determined by its action on a set that spans ''A''; however, the structure constants can't be specified arbitrarily in this case, and knowing only the structure constants does not specify the algebra up to isomorphism.
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| ==Classification of low-dimensional algebras==
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| Two-dimensional, three-dimensional and four-dimensional unital associative algebras over the field of complex numbers were completely classified up to isomorphism by [[Eduard Study]].<ref>{{ citation | last=Study | first=E. | year=1890 | title=Über Systeme complexer Zahlen und ihre Anwendungen in der Theorie der Transformationsgruppen | journal=Monatshefte fũr Mathematik | volume=1 |issue=1 | pages=283–354 | doi=10.1007/BF01692479 }}</ref>
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| There exist two two-dimensional algebras. Each algebra consists of linear combinations (with complex coefficients) of two basis elements, 1 (the identity element) and ''a''. According to the definition of an identity element,
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| :<math>\textstyle 1 \cdot 1 = 1 \, , \quad 1 \cdot a = a \, , \quad a \cdot 1 = a \, . </math> | |
| It remains to specify
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| :<math>\textstyle a a = 1 </math> for the first algebra,
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| :<math>\textstyle a a = 0 </math> for the second algebra.
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| There exist five three-dimensional algebras. Each algebra consists of linear combinations of three basis elements, 1 (the identity element), ''a'' and ''b''. Taking into account the definition of an identity element, it is sufficient to specify
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| :<math>\textstyle a a = a \, , \quad b b = b \, , \quad a b = b a = 0 </math> for the first algebra,
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| :<math>\textstyle a a = a \, , \quad b b = 0 \, , \quad a b = b a = 0 </math> for the second algebra,
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| :<math>\textstyle a a = b \, , \quad b b = 0 \, , \quad a b = b a = 0 </math> for the third algebra,
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| :<math>\textstyle a a = 1 \, , \quad b b = 0 \, , \quad a b = - b a = b </math> for the fourth algebra,
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| :<math>\textstyle a a = 0 \, , \quad b b = 0 \, , \quad a b = b a = 0 </math> for the fifth algebra.
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| The fourth algebra is non-commutative, others are commutative.
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| == See also ==
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| * [[Clifford algebra]]
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| * [[Differential algebra]]
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| * [[Geometric algebra]]
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| * [[Max-plus algebra]]
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| * [[Zariski's lemma]]
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| ==Notes==
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| {{reflist}}
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| ==References==
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| * [[Michiel Hazewinkel]], Nadiya Gubareni, Nadezhda Mikhaĭlovna Gubareni, Vladimir V. Kirichenko. ''Algebras, rings and modules''. Volume 1. 2004. Springer, 2004. ISBN 1-4020-2690-0
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| [[Category:Algebras| ]]
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