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| <!-- Please leave this line alone! --> | | The adore for branded outfits and extras is not new, but men and females are just in appreciate with shopping branded objects for themselves.<br><br>This is the purpose, why the popularity and desire for designer outfits, footwear and purses have been escalating by just about every passing working day.� |
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| '''Differential dynamic microscopy'''
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| Differential dynamic microscopy (DDM) is an optical technique that allows performing [[light scattering]] experiments by means of a simple [[optical microscope]].<ref name="cerbino08">R. Cerbino, V. Trappe, "Differential dynamic microscopy: Probing wavevector-dependent dynamics with a microscope", Phys. Rev. Lett. 100, 188102 (2008), http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.100.188102</ref><ref name="giavazzi09">F. Giavazzi, D. Brogioli, V. Trappe, T. Bellini, R. Cerbino, "Scattering information obtained by optical microscopy: Differential Dynamic Microscopy and beyond", Phys. Rev. E 80, 031403 (2009), http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.80.031403</ref> DDM is suitable for typical [[Soft matter|soft materials]] such as for instance [[liquid]]s or [[gels]] made of [[colloids]], [[polymers]] and [[liquid crystal]]s but also for biological materials like bacteria and [[Cell (biology)|cells]].
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| ==The basic idea==
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| The typical DDM data is a time sequence of microscope images (movie) acquired at some height within the sample (typically at its mid-plane). If the image intensity is locally proportional to the concentration of particles or molecules to be studied (possibly convoluted with the microscope [[Point spread function|point spread function (PSF)]]), each movie can be analyzed in the Fourier space to obtain information about the dynamics of concentration Fourier modes, '''independent on the fact that the particles/molecules can be individually optically resolved or not'''. After suitable calibration also information about the Fourier amplitude of the concentration modes can be extracted.
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| ==Applicability and working principle==
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| The concentration-intensity proportionality is valid at least in two very important cases that distinguish two corresponding classes of DDM methods:
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| # '''scattering-based DDM''': where the image is the result of the superposition of the strong transmitted beam with the weakly scattered light from the particles. Typical cases where this condition can be obtained are [[Bright field microscopy|bright field]], [[phase contrast]], [[Polarized light microscopy|polarized]] microscopes.
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| # '''fluorescence-based DDM''': where the image is the result of the incoherent addition of the intensity emitted by the particles ([[Fluorescent microscope|fluorescence]], [[Confocal microscopy|confocal]]) microscopes
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| In both cases the convolution with the [[Point spread function|PSF]] in the [[real space]] corresponds to a simple product in the [[Reciprocal space|Fourier space]], which guarantees that studying a given Fourier mode of the image intensity provides information about the corresponding Fourier mode of the concentration field. In contrast with [[Single particle tracking|particle tracking]], there is no need of resolving the individual particles, which allows DDM to characterize the dynamics of particles or other moving entities whose size is much smaller than the wavelength of light. Still, the images are acquired in the real space, which provides several advantages with respect to traditional (far field) scattering methods.
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| ==Data analysis==
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| DDM is based on an algorithm proposed in<ref name="croccolo06">F. Croccolo, D. Brogioli, A. Vailati, M. Giglio and D. S. Cannell, "Use of dynamic schlieren interferometry to study fluctuations during free diffusion" , Applied Optics 45, 2166 (2006)</ref> and,<ref name="alaimo06">M. Alaimo, D. Magatti, F. Ferri, and M.A.C. Potenza, " Heterodyne speckle velocimetry", Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 191101 (2006)</ref> which is conveniently named [[Differential Dynamic Algorithm|Differential Dynamic Algorithm (DDA)]]. DDA works by subtracting images acquired at different times and taking advantage that, as the delay <math>\Delta t</math> between two subtracted images gets large, the energy content of the difference image increases correspondingly. A two-dimensional [[Fast Fourier transform|Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)]] analysis of the difference images allows to quantify the growth of the signal contains for each wave vector <math>q</math> and one can calculate the Fourier power spectrum of the difference images for different delays <math>\Delta t</math> to obtain the so-called ''image structure function'' <math>D(q;\Delta t)</math>. Calculation shows that for both scattering- and fluorescence-based DDM
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| {{NumBlk|:|<math>D(q;\Delta t) =B(q)+T(q)I(q)[1-f(q;\Delta t)] \,</math>|{{EquationRef|1}}}}
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| where <math>f(q;\Delta t)</math> is the normalized [[intermediate scattering function]] that would be measured in a [[Dynamic light scattering|Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS)]] experiment, <math>I(q)</math> the sample scattering intensity that would be measured in a [[Static light scattering|Static Light Scattering (SLS)]] experiment, <math>B(q)</math> a background term due to the noise along the detection chain <math>T(q)</math> a transfer function that depends on the microscope details.<ref name="giavazzi09" /> Equation ({{EquationNote|1}}) shows that DDM can be used for [[Dynamic light scattering|DLS]] experiments, provided that a model for the normalized [[intermediate scattering function]] is available.<ref name="giavazzi09" /> For instance, in the case of [[Brownian motion]] one has <math>f(q;\Delta t)=e^{-Dq^{2}\Delta t},</math> where <math>D</math> is the [[Mass diffusivity|diffusion coefficient]] of the Brownian particles. If the transfer function <math>T(q)</math> is determined by calibrating the microscope with a suitable sample, DDM can be employed also for [[Static light scattering|SLS]] experiments. Alternative algorithms for data analysis are suggested in.<ref name="giavazzi09" />
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| ==Relationship with other imaging-based scattering methods==
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| Scattering-based DDM belongs to the so-called '''near-field (or deep Fresnel) scattering''' family,<ref name="cerbino09">R. Cerbino, A. Vailati, "Near-field scattering techniques: Novel instrumentation and results from time and spatially resolved investigations of soft matter systems", Curr. Op. Coll. Int. Science 14, 416 (2009), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cocis.2009.07.003</ref> a recently introduced family of imaging-based scattering methods.<ref name="giglio00">M. Giglio, M. Carpineti, and A. Vailati, "Space intensity correlations in the near field of the scattered light: a direct measurement of the density correlation function g(r)", Phys. Rev. Lett. 85, 1416 (2000), http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.1416</ref><ref name="brogioli02">D. Brogioli, A. Vailati and M. Giglio,"Heterodyne near-field scattering", Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 4109 (2002), http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1524702</ref> ''Near field'' is used here in a similar way to what is used for [[Speckle_pattern#Near-field_speckles|near field speckles]] i.e. as a particular case of Fresnel region as opposed to the ''far field'' or Fraunhofer region. The near field scattering family includes also quantitative [[shadowgraph]]y<ref name="wu95">M. Wu, G. Ahlers and D. S. Cannell, "Thermally induced fluctuations below the onset of Rayleigh-Bénard convection", Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 1743 (1995), http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.1743</ref> and [[Schlieren]].<ref name="croccolo06" />
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| ==Applications of DDM==
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| DDM was introduced in 2008 and it was applied for characterizing the dynamics of [[colloidal particle]]s in [[Brownian motion]].<ref name="cerbino08" /> More recently it has been successfully applied also to the study of aggregation processes of colloidal nanoparticles,<ref name="ferri11">F. Ferri, A. D’Angelo, M. Lee, A. Lotti, M.C. Pigazzini, K. Singh and R. Cerbino, "Kinetics of colloidal fractal aggregation by differential dynamic microscopy", Eur. Phys. J. Special Topics, 199, 139-148 (2011), http://dx.doi.org/10.1140/epjst/e2011-01509-9</ref> of bacterial motions<ref name="wilson11">L. G. Wilson, V. A. Martinez, J. Schwarz-Linek, J. Tailleur, G. Bryant, P. N. Pusey, W. C. K. Poon, "Differential dynamic microscopy of bacterial motility" Phys. Rev. Lett. 2011, 106, 018101, http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.018101</ref><ref name="martinez12">V. A. Martinez, R. Besseling, O. A. Croze, J. Tailleur, M. Reufer, J. Schwarz-Linek, L. G. Wilson, M. A. Bees, W. C. K. Poon "Differential dynamic microscopy: A high-throughput method for characterizing the motility of microorganisms", available from arXiv:1202.1702v1, http://arxiv.org/abs/1202.1702v1</ref> and of the dynamics of anisotropic colloids.<ref name="reufer12">M. Reufer, V. A. Martinez, P. Schurtenberger, and W. C. K. Poon, "Differential Dynamic Microscopy for Anisotropic Colloidal Dynamics", Langmuir, Article ASAP, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/la204904a</ref>
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| == References ==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| == External links ==
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| * [https://sites.google.com/site/cerbino/research/ddm DDM page on the personal website of Roberto Cerbino]
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| <!--- Categories --->
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| [[Category:Scientific techniques]]
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| [[Category:Microscopy]]
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| [[Category:Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)]]
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| [[Category:Biochemistry methods]]
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| [[Category:Physical chemistry]]
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| [[Category:Spectroscopy]]
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The adore for branded outfits and extras is not new, but men and females are just in appreciate with shopping branded objects for themselves.
This is the purpose, why the popularity and desire for designer outfits, footwear and purses have been escalating by just about every passing working day.�
Different trend homes have brought natural beauty and class in the lives of men and women living across the world. When you go out in the marketplace for searching or store online, then you come throughout a substantial range of manufacturers, which are marketing incredible items, but if you chat about sleekness and lovely extras then almost nothing can be improved then Abercrombie and Fitch.�
This model has been exceedingly rising consideration of guys and girls. The rationale of these types of a sturdy enjoy for the A&F garment and accessories is the way this model fulfills the style demands of guys gals, belonging from various walks of lifestyl
Abercrombie and Fitch outlet has turn out to be a single of the most sought following retailer
You will get total assortment of branded goods, shelved in an appealing way. Adult males and women of diverse ages have been incredibly glad by the way, Abercrombie and Fitch has been catering their vogue demands. This brand has attained appreciable respect, for it has always been prosperous http://www.pcs-systems.co.uk/Images/celinebag.aspx in going beyond the anticipations of it�s hugely prestigious and esteemed buyer
The extra you devote on the garments of Abercrombie and Fitch, the additional you adorn and improve the value of your clothes and add-ons assortme
If you are fashion freak human being and do not want to glimpse like they your good friends look, then nothing at all can be superior than visiting your nearest Abercrombie and Fitch outlet. You will be astonished to see so many fashionable, trendy and modish solutions available, beneath a person roo
Abercrombie and Fitch has been providing some definitely celine bags trendy garments, for adult men and g
� The demand from customers for the products and solutions of this model is very a lot substantial in younger men and women. This brand name pays sheer attention on building and production the solutions of the optimum top quality. The material, hues, stitching and detailing of the goods of A&F, makes this manufacturer extremely different, novel and styli
It talks about giving decent and innovative merchandise to its pros
c
.� If you will take a look at Abercrombie and Fitch outlet, then you are undoubtedly going to be tantalized by the products and solutions, for you will get all what you have been longing for. Much more and much more individuals want to phase into the shops of Abercrombie and Fitch, for they have entire have confidence in in the products, which this brand name has been presenting to its highly prestigious
s.� This manufacturer understands the style demands of its buyers. It has been devoted in catering their wants and would like to go further than its customers� anticipations. This is the explanation, why so lots of consumers have constantly been checking out their nearest and closest Abercrombie and Fitch o
let.
All the stores of this brand name serve you in the most effective feasible way. It is for absolutely sure that you will get to place your arms on the goods, which are available at standardized charges at all shop of Abercrombie and Fitch.