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The '''cost of [[capital (economics)|capital]]''' is a term used in the field of financial investment to refer to the cost of a company's funds (both [[debt]] and [[Equity (finance)|equity]]), or, from an investor's point of view "the shareholder's required return on a portfolio company's existing securities".<ref>Brealy &al. "Principles of Corporate Finance", Chapter 10</ref> It is used to evaluate new projects of a company as it is the minimum return that investors expect for providing capital to the company, thus setting a benchmark that a new project has to meet. | |||
==Summary== | |||
For an investment to be worthwhile, the expected [[return on capital]] must be greater than the cost of capital. The cost of capital is the rate of return that capital could be expected to earn in an alternative investment of equivalent risk. If a project is of similar risk to a company's average business activities it is reasonable to use the company's average cost of capital as a basis for the evaluation. A company's securities typically include both debt and equity, one must therefore calculate both the cost of debt and the cost of equity to determine a company's cost of capital. However, a rate of return larger than the cost of capital is usually required. | |||
The '''cost of debt''' is relatively simple to calculate, as it is composed of the rate of interest paid. In practice, the interest-rate paid by the company can be modeled as the risk-free rate plus a risk component ([[risk premium]]), which itself incorporates a probable rate of default (and amount of recovery given default). For companies with similar risk or [[Bond credit rating|credit ratings]], the interest rate is largely [[exogenous]] (not linked to the cost of debt), the cost of equity is broadly defined as the risk-weighted projected return required by investors, where the return is largely unknown. The cost of equity is therefore ''inferred'' by comparing the investment to other investments (comparable) with similar risk profiles to determine the "market" cost of equity. It is commonly equated using the [[capital asset pricing model]] formula (below), although articles such as Stulz 1995 question the validity of using a local CAPM versus an international CAPM- also considering whether markets are fully integrated or segmented (if fully integrated, there would be no need for a local CAPM). | |||
Once cost of debt and cost of equity have been determined, their blend, the weighted-average cost of capital (WACC), can be calculated. This WACC can then be used as a [[Annual effective discount rate|discount rate]] for a project's projected cash flows. | |||
==Cost of debt == | |||
When companies borrow funds from outside or take debt from financial institutions or other resources the interest paid on that amount is called cost of debt. The cost of debt is computed by taking the rate on a [[risk free bond]] whose duration matches the [[term structure]] of the corporate debt, then adding a [[Risk premium|default premium]]. This default premium will rise as the amount of debt increases (since, all other things being equal, the risk rises as the amount of debt rises). Since in most cases debt expense is a [[deductible expense]], the cost of debt is computed as an after tax cost to make it comparable with the cost of equity (earnings are [[After Taxes|after-tax]] as well). Thus, for profitable firms, debt is [[discounted]] by the tax rate. The formula can be written as '''(Rf + credit risk rate)(1-T)''', where T is the corporate tax rate and Rf is the risk free rate. | |||
The [[yield to maturity]] can be used as an approximation of the cost of debt. | |||
==Cost of equity == | |||
Cost of equity = Risk free rate of return + Premium expected for risk<br /> | |||
Cost of equity = Risk free rate of return + Beta x (market rate of return- risk free rate of return) | |||
where Beta= sensitivity to movements in the relevant market<br /> | |||
<math>E_s = R_f + \beta_s(R_m - R_f).\,</math> | |||
Where: | |||
<dl> | |||
<dt>''E<sub>s</sub>''<dd>The expected return for a security | |||
<dt>''R<sub>f</sub>''<dd>The expected [[risk-free return]] in that market (government bond yield) | |||
<dt>''β<sub>s</sub>''<dd>The sensitivity to [[market risk]] for the security | |||
<dt>''R<sub>M</sub>''<dd>The historical return of the stock market/ [[equity market]] | |||
<dt>''(R<sub>M</sub>-R<sub>f</sub>)''<dd>The [[risk premium]] of market assets over risk free assets. | |||
</dl> | |||
The risk free rate is taken from the lowest yielding bonds in the particular market, such as [[government bonds]]. | |||
An alternative to the estimation of the required return by the [[capital asset pricing model]] as above, is the use of the [[Fama–French three-factor model]]. | |||
===Expected return=== | |||
The expected return (or required rate of return for investors) can be calculated with the "[[Dividend discount model|dividend capitalization]] model", which is | |||
<math>K_{cs} = \frac{Dividend_{Payment/Share}} {Price_{Market}} + Growth_{rate}.\,</math> | |||
===Comments=== | |||
The models state that investors will expect a return that is the [[risk-free return]] plus the security's sensitivity to [[market risk]] times the market risk premium. | |||
The risk premium varies over time and place, but in some [[developed countries]] during the twentieth century it has averaged around 5%. The equity market real [[capital gain]] return has been about the same as annual real GDP growth. The [[capital gains]] on the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] have been 1.6% per year over the period 1910-2005. <ref>[http://home.earthlink.net/~intelligentbear/com-dj-infl.htm Fred's Intelligent Bear Site]</ref> The dividends have increased the total "real" return on average equity to the double, about 3.2%. | |||
The sensitivity to market risk (β) is unique for each firm and depends on everything from management to its business and [[capital structure]]. This value cannot be known "[[ex ante]]" (beforehand), but can be estimated from ''[[ex post]]'' (past) returns and past experience with similar firms. | |||
====Cost of retained earnings/cost of internal equity==== | |||
Note that [[retained earnings]] are a component of equity, and therefore the cost of retained earnings (internal equity) is equal to the cost of equity as explained above. Dividends (earnings that are paid to investors and not retained) are a component of the return on capital to equity holders, and influence the cost of capital through that mechanism. | |||
==Weighted average cost of capital== | |||
{{Main|Weighted average cost of capital}} | |||
The Weighted Cost of Capital (WACC) is used in finance to measure a firm's cost of capital. | |||
The total capital for a firm is the value of its equity (for a firm without outstanding [[Warrant (finance)|warrant]]s and [[Option (finance)|options]], this is the same as the company's [[market capitalization]]) plus the cost of its debt (the cost of debt should be continually updated as the cost of debt changes as a result of interest rate changes). Notice that the "equity" in the [[debt to equity ratio]] is the market value of all equity, not the [[shareholders' equity]] on the balance sheet.To calculate the firm’s weighted cost of capital, we must first calculate the costs of the individual financing sources: | |||
Cost of Debt, Cost of Preference Capital and Cost of Equity Cap. | |||
Calculation of WACC is an iterative procedure which requires estimation of the fair market value of equity capital.<ref>[http://www.valuadder.com/glossary/weighted-average-cost-capital.html Business Valuation Glossary - WACC Calculation using an Iterative Procedure]</ref> | |||
==Capital structure== | |||
{{Main|Capital structure}} | |||
Because of tax advantages on debt issuance, it will be cheaper to issue debt rather than new equity (this is only true for profitable firms, tax breaks are available only to profitable firms). At some point, however, the cost of issuing new debt will be greater than the cost of issuing new equity. This is because adding debt increases the [[default risk]] - and thus the [[interest rate]] that the company must pay in order to borrow money. By utilizing too much debt in its capital structure, this increased default risk can also drive up the costs for other sources (such as retained earnings and preferred stock) as well. Management must identify the "optimal mix" of financing – the [[capital structure]] where the cost of capital is minimized so that the firm's value can be maximized. | |||
The [[Thomson Financial league tables]] show that global debt issuance exceeds equity issuance with a 90 to 10 margin. | |||
The structure of capital should be determined considering the weighted average cost of capital. | |||
==Modigliani-Miller theorem== | |||
{{Main|Modigliani-Miller theorem}} | |||
If there were no tax advantages for issuing debt, and equity could be freely issued, [[Modigliani-Miller theorem|Miller and Modigliani]] showed that, under certain assumptions, the value of a leveraged firm and the value of an unleveraged firm should be the same. | |||
== See also == | |||
*[[Preference share]] | |||
*[[Ordinary share]] | |||
==References== | |||
{{Reflist}} | |||
==Further reading== | |||
*{{ cite journal | last = Modigliani | first = F. | authorlink = | coauthors = Miller, M. | year = 1958 | month = | title = The Cost of Capital, Corporation Finance and the Theory of Investment | journal = [[The American Economic Review|American Economic Review]] | volume = 48 | issue = 3 | pages = 261–297 | publisher = [[American Economic Association]]| jstor = 1809766 }} | |||
*{{cite book | author=Rosenbaum, Joshua | coauthors=Joshua Pearl | title=Investment Banking: Valuation, Leveraged Buyouts, and Mergers & Acquisitions | publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] | location=Hoboken, NJ | year=2009 | isbn=0-470-44220-4}} | |||
*{{ cite journal | last = Yee | first = Kenton K. | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2000 | month = | title = Aggregation, Dividend Irrelevancy, and Earnings-Value Relations | journal = [[Contemporary Accounting Research]] | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 453–480 | doi = 10.1506/GEH4-WNJR-G58F-UM0U| ssrn = 667781 | quote = }} | |||
{{Corporate finance and investment banking}} | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cost Of Capital}} | |||
[[Category:Capital (economics)]] | |||
Revision as of 07:14, 31 March 2013
The cost of capital is a term used in the field of financial investment to refer to the cost of a company's funds (both debt and equity), or, from an investor's point of view "the shareholder's required return on a portfolio company's existing securities".[1] It is used to evaluate new projects of a company as it is the minimum return that investors expect for providing capital to the company, thus setting a benchmark that a new project has to meet.
Summary
For an investment to be worthwhile, the expected return on capital must be greater than the cost of capital. The cost of capital is the rate of return that capital could be expected to earn in an alternative investment of equivalent risk. If a project is of similar risk to a company's average business activities it is reasonable to use the company's average cost of capital as a basis for the evaluation. A company's securities typically include both debt and equity, one must therefore calculate both the cost of debt and the cost of equity to determine a company's cost of capital. However, a rate of return larger than the cost of capital is usually required.
The cost of debt is relatively simple to calculate, as it is composed of the rate of interest paid. In practice, the interest-rate paid by the company can be modeled as the risk-free rate plus a risk component (risk premium), which itself incorporates a probable rate of default (and amount of recovery given default). For companies with similar risk or credit ratings, the interest rate is largely exogenous (not linked to the cost of debt), the cost of equity is broadly defined as the risk-weighted projected return required by investors, where the return is largely unknown. The cost of equity is therefore inferred by comparing the investment to other investments (comparable) with similar risk profiles to determine the "market" cost of equity. It is commonly equated using the capital asset pricing model formula (below), although articles such as Stulz 1995 question the validity of using a local CAPM versus an international CAPM- also considering whether markets are fully integrated or segmented (if fully integrated, there would be no need for a local CAPM).
Once cost of debt and cost of equity have been determined, their blend, the weighted-average cost of capital (WACC), can be calculated. This WACC can then be used as a discount rate for a project's projected cash flows.
Cost of debt
When companies borrow funds from outside or take debt from financial institutions or other resources the interest paid on that amount is called cost of debt. The cost of debt is computed by taking the rate on a risk free bond whose duration matches the term structure of the corporate debt, then adding a default premium. This default premium will rise as the amount of debt increases (since, all other things being equal, the risk rises as the amount of debt rises). Since in most cases debt expense is a deductible expense, the cost of debt is computed as an after tax cost to make it comparable with the cost of equity (earnings are after-tax as well). Thus, for profitable firms, debt is discounted by the tax rate. The formula can be written as (Rf + credit risk rate)(1-T), where T is the corporate tax rate and Rf is the risk free rate.
The yield to maturity can be used as an approximation of the cost of debt.
Cost of equity
Cost of equity = Risk free rate of return + Premium expected for risk
Cost of equity = Risk free rate of return + Beta x (market rate of return- risk free rate of return)
where Beta= sensitivity to movements in the relevant market
Where:
- Es
- The expected return for a security
- Rf
- The expected risk-free return in that market (government bond yield)
- βs
- The sensitivity to market risk for the security
- RM
- The historical return of the stock market/ equity market
- (RM-Rf)
- The risk premium of market assets over risk free assets.
The risk free rate is taken from the lowest yielding bonds in the particular market, such as government bonds.
An alternative to the estimation of the required return by the capital asset pricing model as above, is the use of the Fama–French three-factor model.
Expected return
The expected return (or required rate of return for investors) can be calculated with the "dividend capitalization model", which is
Comments
The models state that investors will expect a return that is the risk-free return plus the security's sensitivity to market risk times the market risk premium.
The risk premium varies over time and place, but in some developed countries during the twentieth century it has averaged around 5%. The equity market real capital gain return has been about the same as annual real GDP growth. The capital gains on the Dow Jones Industrial Average have been 1.6% per year over the period 1910-2005. [2] The dividends have increased the total "real" return on average equity to the double, about 3.2%.
The sensitivity to market risk (β) is unique for each firm and depends on everything from management to its business and capital structure. This value cannot be known "ex ante" (beforehand), but can be estimated from ex post (past) returns and past experience with similar firms.
Cost of retained earnings/cost of internal equity
Note that retained earnings are a component of equity, and therefore the cost of retained earnings (internal equity) is equal to the cost of equity as explained above. Dividends (earnings that are paid to investors and not retained) are a component of the return on capital to equity holders, and influence the cost of capital through that mechanism.
Weighted average cost of capital
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The Weighted Cost of Capital (WACC) is used in finance to measure a firm's cost of capital.
The total capital for a firm is the value of its equity (for a firm without outstanding warrants and options, this is the same as the company's market capitalization) plus the cost of its debt (the cost of debt should be continually updated as the cost of debt changes as a result of interest rate changes). Notice that the "equity" in the debt to equity ratio is the market value of all equity, not the shareholders' equity on the balance sheet.To calculate the firm’s weighted cost of capital, we must first calculate the costs of the individual financing sources: Cost of Debt, Cost of Preference Capital and Cost of Equity Cap.
Calculation of WACC is an iterative procedure which requires estimation of the fair market value of equity capital.[3]
Capital structure
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.
Because of tax advantages on debt issuance, it will be cheaper to issue debt rather than new equity (this is only true for profitable firms, tax breaks are available only to profitable firms). At some point, however, the cost of issuing new debt will be greater than the cost of issuing new equity. This is because adding debt increases the default risk - and thus the interest rate that the company must pay in order to borrow money. By utilizing too much debt in its capital structure, this increased default risk can also drive up the costs for other sources (such as retained earnings and preferred stock) as well. Management must identify the "optimal mix" of financing – the capital structure where the cost of capital is minimized so that the firm's value can be maximized.
The Thomson Financial league tables show that global debt issuance exceeds equity issuance with a 90 to 10 margin.
The structure of capital should be determined considering the weighted average cost of capital.
Modigliani-Miller theorem
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.
If there were no tax advantages for issuing debt, and equity could be freely issued, Miller and Modigliani showed that, under certain assumptions, the value of a leveraged firm and the value of an unleveraged firm should be the same.
See also
References
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Further reading
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Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
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The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
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In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
Template:Corporate finance and investment banking
- ↑ Brealy &al. "Principles of Corporate Finance", Chapter 10
- ↑ Fred's Intelligent Bear Site
- ↑ Business Valuation Glossary - WACC Calculation using an Iterative Procedure