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'''Graham's law''', known as '''Graham's law of [[effusion]]''', was formulated by Scottish physical chemist [[Thomas Graham (chemist)|Thomas Graham]] in 1848. Graham found experimentally that the rate of [[effusion]] of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles.<ref name=LM>[[Keith J. Laidler]] and John M. Meiser, ''Physical Chemistry'' (Benjamin/Cummings 1982), pp.18-19</ref> This formula can be written as:
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:<math>{\mbox{Rate}_1 \over \mbox{Rate}_2}=\sqrt{M_2 \over M_1}</math>
 
where:
:''Rate<sub>1</sub>'' is the rate of effusion of the first gas (volume or number of moles per unit time).
:''Rate<sub>2</sub>'' is the rate of effusion for the second gas.  
:''M<sub>1</sub>'' is the [[molar mass]] of gas 1
:''M<sub>2</sub>'' is the molar mass of gas 2.
 
Graham's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight. Thus, if the molecular weight of one gas is four times that of another, it would diffuse through a porous plug or escape through a small pinhole in a vessel at half the rate of the other (heavier gases diffuse more slowly). A complete theoretical explanation of Graham's law was provided years later by the [[kinetic theory|kinetic theory of gases]]. Graham's law provides a basis for separating [[isotopes]] by diffusion &mdash; a method that came to play a crucial role in the development of the atomic bomb.
 
Graham's law is most accurate for molecular [[effusion]] which involves the movement of one gas at a time through a hole. It is only approximate for [[diffusion]] of one gas in another or in air, as these processes involve the movement of more than one gas.
 
==History==
Graham's research on the diffusion of gases was triggered by his reading about the observation of [[Germany|German]] chemist [[Johann Döbereiner]] that hydrogen gas diffused out of a small crack in a glass bottle faster than the surrounding air diffused in to replace it. Graham measured the rate of diffusion of gases through plaster plugs, through very fine tubes, and through small orifices. In this way he slowed down the process so that it could be studied quantitatively. He first stated the law as we know it today in 1831. Graham went on to study the diffusion of substances in solution and in the process made the discovery that some apparent solutions actually are [[suspension (chemistry)|suspensions]] of particles too large to pass through a parchment filter. He termed these materials [[colloid]]s, a term that has come to denote an important class of finely divided materials.
 
At the time Graham did his work, the concept of molecular weight was being established, in large part through measurements of gases. Italian physicist [[Amedeo Avogadro]] had suggested in 1811 that equal volumes of different gases contain equal numbers of molecules. Thus, the relative molecular weights of two gases are equal to the ratio of weights of equal volumes of the gases. Avogadro's insight together with other studies of gas behaviour provided a basis for later theoretical work by Scottish physicist [[James Clerk Maxwell]] to explain the properties of gases as collections of small particles moving through largely empty space.
 
Perhaps the greatest success of the kinetic theory of gases, as it came to be called, was the discovery that for gases, the temperature as measured on the [[Kelvin]] (absolute) temperature scale is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules. The kinetic energy of any object is equal to one-half its mass times the square of its velocity. Thus, to have equal kinetic energies, the velocities of two different molecules would have to be in inverse proportion to the square roots of their masses. The rate of effusion is determined by the number of molecules entering an aperture per unit time, and hence by the average molecular velocity. Graham's law for diffusion could thus be understood as a consequence of the molecular kinetic energies being equal at the same temperature.
 
==Example==
Let gas 1 be H<sub>2</sub> and gas 2 be O<sub>2</sub>.
 
:<math>{\mbox{Rate H}_2 \over \mbox{Rate O}_2}={\sqrt{32} \over \sqrt{2}}={\sqrt{16} \over \sqrt{1}}= \frac{4}{ 1}</math>
 
Therefore, hydrogen molecules effuse four times faster than those of oxygen.<ref name=LM/>
 
Graham's Law can also be used to find the approximate molecular weight of a gas if one gas is a known species, and if there is a specific ratio between the rates of two gases (such as in the previous example). The equation can be solved for either one of the molecular weights provided the subscripts are consistent.
 
:<math>{M_2}={M_1 \mbox{Rate}_1^2 \over \mbox{Rate}_2^2}</math>
 
Graham's law was the [[Gaseous diffusion|basis]] for separating <sup>235</sup>U from <sup>238</sup>U found in natural [[uraninite]] (uranium ore) during the [[Manhattan project]] to build the first atomic bomb. The United States government built a gaseous diffusion plant at the then phenomenal cost of $100 million in Clinton, Tennessee. In this plant, [[uranium]] from uranium ore was first converted to [[uranium hexafluoride]] and then forced repeatedly to diffuse through porous barriers, each time becoming a little more enriched in the slightly lighter <sup>235</sup>U isotope.
 
==See also==
* [[Gas laws]]
* [[Scientific laws named after people]]
* [[Viscosity]]
* [[Drag (physics)]]
 
==References==
{{Reflist}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Graham's Law}}
[[Category:Gas laws]]

Revision as of 06:55, 4 March 2014

If you should accelerate the PC then we have come to the proper area. I will show we, right now, five fast ways to dramatically improve your computer's performance.

You should understand some easy plus inexpensive ways that could resolve the issue of your computer plus speed it up. The earlier you fix it, the less damage your computer gets. I usually tell about certain worthwhile techniques that may help we to accelerate you computer.

Windows is pretty dumb. It only knows how to follow commands plus instructions, that means that whenever we install a program, which program has to tell Windows precisely what to do. This really is done by storing an "training file" inside the registry of the system. All the computer programs put these "manuals" into the registry, allowing a computer to run a wide array of programs. When you load up one of those programs, Windows just looks up the system file in the registry, and carries out its instructions.

The issue with many of the persons is the fact that they never like to spend funds. In the damaged version one does not have to pay anything plus could download it from internet easily. It is simple to install too. But, the issue comes whenever it really is not able to identify all possible viruses, spyware and malware inside the program. This really is because it's obsolete in nature plus refuses to get any standard changes within the webpage downloaded. Thus, your system is accessible to issues like hacking.

Google Chrome crashes on Windows 7 if the registry entries are improperly modified. Missing registry keys or registry keys with wrong values may cause runtime mistakes and thereby the problem occurs. We are recommended to scan the entire system registry and review the outcome. Attempt the registry repair procedure using third-party pc tools registry mechanic software.

2)Fix a Windows registry to accelerate PC- The registry is a complex section of the computer which holds different kinds of information within the factors we do on the laptop daily. Coincidentally, over time the registry may become cluttered with info and/or can receive several sort of virus. This is especially critical and we MUST receive this issue fixed right away, otherwise we run the risk of your computer being permanently damage and/or the sensitive information (passwords, etc.) can be stolen.

In alternative words, if your PC has any corrupt settings inside the registry database, these settings usually make a computer run slower plus with a lot of mistakes. And unluckily, it's the case which XP is prone to saving several settings within the registry in the incorrect way, creating them unable to run correctly, slowing it down and causing a lot of mistakes. Each time we employ your PC, it has to read 100's of registry settings... and there are frequently numerous files open at once that XP gets confuse plus saves various inside the wrong technique. Fixing these damaged settings can boost the speed of your program... plus to do that, we should look to employ a 'registry cleaner'.

There are many businesses that provide the service of troubleshooting your PC every time we call them, all you need to do is sign up with them and for a tiny fee, you have the machine usually functioning effectively plus serve we better.

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