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| [[Image:CMOS Inverter.svg|thumb|right|CMOS inverter ([[Inverter (logic gate)|NOT logic gate]])]]
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| '''Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor''' ('''CMOS''') {{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|iː|m|ɒ|s}} is a technology for constructing [[integrated circuit]]s. CMOS technology is used in [[microprocessor]]s, [[microcontroller]]s, [[Static Random Access Memory|static RAM]], and other [[digital logic]] circuits. CMOS technology is also used for several analog circuits such as [[image sensor]]s ([[CMOS sensor]]), [[data conversion|data converters]], and highly integrated [[transceiver]]s for many types of communication. [[Frank Wanlass]] patented CMOS in 1963 ([[wikisource:United States patent 3356858|US patent 3,356,858]]).
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| CMOS is also sometimes referred to as '''complementary-symmetry metal–oxide–semiconductor''' (or COS-MOS).<ref>''COS-MOS'' was an RCA trademark, which forced other manufacturers to find another name —CMOS</ref>
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| The words "complementary-symmetry" refer to the fact that the typical digital design style with CMOS uses complementary and symmetrical pairs of [[p-type semiconductor|p-type]] and [[n-type semiconductor|n-type]] [[metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor]]s (MOSFETs) for logic functions.<ref>{{cite web|title=What is CMOS Memory?|url=http://wickedsago.blogspot.com/2011/04/what-is-cmos-memory.html|work=Wicked Sago|accessdate=3 March 2013}}</ref>
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| Two important characteristics of CMOS devices are high [[electronic noise|noise immunity]] and low static [[power consumption]]. Since one [[transistor]] of the pair is always off, the series combination draws significant power only momentarily during switching between on and off states. Consequently, CMOS devices do not produce as much [[waste heat]] as other forms of logic, for example [[transistor–transistor logic]] (TTL) or [[NMOS logic]], which normally have some standing current even when not changing state. CMOS also allows a high density of logic functions on a chip. It was primarily for this reason that CMOS became the most used technology to be implemented in [[VLSI]] chips.
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| The phrase "metal–oxide–semiconductor" is a reference to the physical structure of certain [[field-effect transistor]]s, having a metal gate electrode placed on top of an oxide insulator, which in turn is on top of a [[semiconductor|semiconductor material]]. [[Aluminium]] was once used but now the material is [[polysilicon]]. Other [[metal gate]]s have made a comeback with the advent of [[high-k]] dielectric materials in the CMOS process, as announced by IBM and Intel for the [[45 nanometre]] node and beyond.<ref>[http://www.intel.com/technology/45nm/index.htm Intel 45nm Hi-k Silicon Technology]</ref>
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| == Technical details ==
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| "CMOS" refers to both a particular style of digital circuitry design and the family of processes used to implement that circuitry on integrated circuits (chips). CMOS circuitry dissipates [[Low-power electronics|less power]] than logic families with resistive loads. Since this advantage has increased and grown more important, CMOS processes and variants have come to dominate, thus the vast majority of modern integrated circuit manufacturing is on CMOS processes.<ref>{{cite book |title= CMOS: circuit design, layout, and simulation |last= Baker|first= R. Jacob |year= 2008 |publisher= Wiley-IEEE |edition= Second |isbn= 978-0-470-22941-5 |page= xxix }}</ref>
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| As of 2010, CPUs with the best [[performance per watt]] each year have been CMOS [[Static logic (digital logic)|static logic]] since 1976.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}
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| CMOS circuits use a combination of p-channel and n-channel [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor]]s (MOSFETs) to implement [[logic gate]]s. Although CMOS logic can be implemented with discrete devices for demonstrations, commercial CMOS products are integrated circuits composed of up to millions of transistors of both types on a rectangular piece of silicon of between 10 and 400 mm<sup>2</sup>.
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| == Inversion ==
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| [[Image:CMOS Inverter.svg|thumb|right|Static CMOS Inverter]]
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| CMOS circuits are constructed in such a way that all PMOS transistors must have either an input from the voltage source or from another PMOS transistor. Similarly, all NMOS transistors must have either an input from ground or from another NMOS transistor. The composition of a PMOS transistor creates low [[Electrical resistance|resistance]] between its source and drain contacts when a low [[gate]] [[voltage]] is applied and high resistance when a high gate voltage is applied. On the other hand, the composition of an NMOS transistor creates high resistance between source and drain when a low gate voltage is applied and low resistance when a high gate voltage is applied. CMOS accomplishes current reduction by complementing every nMOSFET with a pMOSFET and connecting both gates and both drains together. A high voltage on the gates will cause the nMOSFET to conduct and the pMOSFET to not conduct while a low voltage on the gates causes the reverse. This arrangement greatly reduces power consumption and heat generation. However, during the switching time both MOSFETs conduct briefly as the gate voltage goes from one state to another. This induces a brief spike in power consumption and becomes a serious issue at high frequencies.
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| The image on the right shows what happens when an input is connected to both a PMOS transistor (top of diagram) and an NMOS transistor (bottom of diagram). When the voltage of input A is low, the NMOS transistor's channel is in a high resistance state. This limits the current that can flow from Q to ground. The PMOS transistor's channel is in a low resistance state and much more current can flow from the supply to the output. Because the resistance between the supply voltage and Q is low, the voltage drop between the supply voltage and Q due to a current drawn from Q is small. The output therefore registers a high voltage.
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| On the other hand, when the voltage of input A is high, the PMOS transistor is in an OFF (high resistance) state so it would limit the current flowing from the positive supply to the output, while the NMOS transistor is in an ON (low resistance) state, allowing the output from drain to ground. Because the resistance between Q and ground is low, the voltage drop due to a current drawn into Q placing Q above ground is small. This low drop results in the output registering a low voltage.
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| In short, the outputs of the PMOS and NMOS transistors are complementary such that when the input is low, the output is high, and when the input is high, the output is low. Because of this behaviour of input and output, the CMOS circuits' output is the inverse of the input.
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| The power supplies for CMOS are called V<sub>DD</sub> and V<sub>SS</sub>, or V<sub>CC</sub> and Ground(GND) depending on the manufacturer. V<sub>DD</sub> and V<sub>SS</sub> are carryovers from conventional MOS circuits and stand for the drain and source supplies.<ref>http://www.fairchildsemi.com/an/AN/AN-77.pdf</ref> These do not apply directly to CMOS since both supplies are really source supplies. V<sub>CC</sub> and Ground are carryovers from TTL logic and that nomenclature has been retained with the introduction of the 54C/74C line of CMOS.
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| === Duality ===
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| An important characteristic of a CMOS circuit is the duality that exists between its PMOS transistors and NMOS transistors. A CMOS circuit is created to allow a path always to exist from the output to either the power source or ground. To accomplish this, the set of all paths to the voltage source must be the [[Complement (set theory)#Logical complement|complement]] of the set of all paths to ground. This can be easily accomplished by defining one in terms of the NOT of the other. Due to the [[De Morgan's laws]] based logic, the PMOS transistors in parallel have corresponding NMOS transistors in series while the PMOS transistors in series have corresponding NMOS transistors in parallel.
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| === Logic ===
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| [[Image:CMOS NAND.svg|right|thumb|125px|[[NAND gate]] in CMOS logic]]
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| More complex logic functions such as those involving [[Binary and|AND]] and [[Logical disjunction|OR]] gates require manipulating the paths between gates to represent the logic. When a path consists of two transistors in series, both transistors must have low resistance to the corresponding supply voltage, modelling an AND. When a path consists of two transistors in parallel, either one or both of the transistors must have low resistance to connect the supply voltage to the output, modelling an OR.
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| Shown on the right is a [[circuit diagram]] of a [[NAND gate]] in CMOS logic. If both of the A and B inputs are high, then both the NMOS transistors (bottom half of the diagram) will conduct, neither of the PMOS transistors (top half) will conduct, and a conductive path will be established between the output and ''V''<sub>ss</sub> (ground), bringing the output low. If both of the A and B inputs are low, then neither of the NMOS transistors will conduct, while both of the PMOS transistors will conduct, establishing a conductive path between the output and ''V''<sub>dd</sub> (voltage source), bringing the output high. If either of the A or B inputs is low, one of the NMOS transistors will not conduct, one of the PMOS transistors will, and a conductive path will be established between the output and ''V''<sub>dd</sub> (voltage source), bringing the output high. As the only configuration of the two inputs that results in a low output is when both are high, this circuit implements a [[NAND gate|NAND]] (NOT AND) logic gate.
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| An advantage of CMOS over NMOS is that both low-to-high and high-to-low output transitions are fast since the pull-up transistors have low resistance when switched on, unlike the load resistors in NMOS logic. In addition, the output signal swings the full [[voltage]] between the low and high rails. This strong, more nearly symmetric response also makes CMOS more resistant to noise.
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| See [[Logical effort]] for a method of calculating delay in a CMOS circuit.
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| === Example: NAND gate in physical layout ===
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| [[Image:CMOS NAND Layout.svg|right|thumbnail|150px|The [[physical layout]] of a NAND circuit. The larger regions of N-type diffusion and P-type diffusion are part of the transistors. The two smaller regions on the left are taps to prevent [[latchup]]. ]]
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| [[Image:CMOS fabrication process.svg|thumb|150px|Simplified process of fabrication of a CMOS inverter on p-type substrate in semiconductor microfabrication. Note: Gate, source and drain contacts are not normally in the same plane in real devices, and the diagram is not to scale.]]
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| This example shows a [[Logical NAND|NAND]] logic device drawn as a physical representation as it would be manufactured. The physical layout perspective is a "bird's eye view" of a stack of layers. The circuit is constructed on a P-type substrate. The [[polysilicon]], diffusion, and n-well are referred to as "base layers" and are actually inserted into trenches of the P-type substrate. The contacts penetrate an insulating layer between the base layers and the first layer of metal (metal1) making a connection.
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| The inputs to the [[NAND gate|NAND]] (illustrated in green color) are in [[polysilicon]]. The CMOS transistors (devices) are formed by the intersection of the [[polysilicon]] and diffusion; N diffusion for the N device & P diffusion for the P device (illustrated in salmon and yellow coloring respectively). The output ("out") is connected together in metal (illustrated in cyan coloring). Connections between metal and [[polysilicon]] or diffusion are made through contacts (illustrated as black squares). The [[physical layout]] example matches the NAND logic circuit given in the previous example.
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| The N device is manufactured on a P-type substrate while the P device is manufactured in an N-type well (n-well). A P-type substrate "tap" is connected to V<sub>SS</sub> and an N-type n-well tap is connected to V<sub>DD</sub> to prevent [[latchup]].
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| [[Image:Cmos impurity profile.PNG|center|thumbnail|500px|Cross section of two transistors in a CMOS gate, in an N-well CMOS process]].
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| == Power: switching and leakage ==
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| CMOS logic dissipates less power than NMOS logic circuits because CMOS dissipates power only when switching ("dynamic power"). On a typical [[application-specific integrated circuit|ASIC]] in a modern [[90 nanometer]] process, switching the output might take 120 picoseconds, and happens once every ten nanoseconds. NMOS logic dissipates power whenever the transistor is on, because there is a current path from V<sub>dd</sub> to V<sub>ss</sub> through the load resistor and the n-type network.
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| Static CMOS gates are very power efficient because they dissipate nearly zero power when idle. Earlier, the power consumption of CMOS devices was not the major concern while designing chips. Factors like speed and area dominated the design parameters. As the CMOS technology moved below sub-micron levels the power consumption per unit area of the chip has risen tremendously.
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| Broadly classifying, power dissipation in CMOS circuits occurs because of two components:
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| ===Static dissipation===
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| * '''Sub threshold conduction when the transistors are off.'''
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| Both NMOS and PMOS transistors have a gate–source [[threshold voltage]], below which the current (called ''sub threshold'' current) through the device drops exponentially. Historically, CMOS designs operated at supply voltages much larger than their threshold voltages (V<sub>dd</sub> might have been 5 V, and V<sub>th</sub> for both NMOS and PMOS might have been 700 mV). A special type of the CMOS transistor with near zero [[threshold voltage]] is the [[native transistor]].
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| * '''Tunnelling current through gate oxide.'''
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| SiO<sub>2</sub> is a very good insulator, but at very small thickness levels electrons can tunnel across the very thin insulation; the probability drops off exponentially with oxide thickness. Tunnelling current becomes very important for transistors below 130 nm technology with gate oxides of 20 Å or thinner.
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| * '''Leakage current through reverse biased diodes.'''
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| Small reverse leakage currents are formed due to formation of reverse bias between diffusion regions and wells (for e.g., p-type diffusion vs. n-well), wells and substrate (for e.g., n-well vs. p-substrate). In modern process diode leakage is very small compared to sub threshold and tunnelling currents, so these may be neglected during power calculations.
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| * '''Contention current in ratioed circuit'''
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| ===Dynamic Dissipation===
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| * '''Charging and discharging of load capacitances.'''
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| CMOS circuits dissipate power by charging the various load capacitances (mostly gate and wire capacitance, but also drain and some source capacitances) whenever they are switched. In one complete cycle of CMOS logic, current flows from V<sub>DD</sub> to the load capacitance to charge it and then flows from the charged load capacitance to ground during discharge. Therefore in one complete charge/discharge cycle, a total of Q=C<sub>L</sub>V<sub>DD</sub> is thus transferred from V<sub>DD</sub> to ground. Multiply by the switching frequency on the load capacitances to get the current used, and multiply by voltage again to get the characteristic switching power dissipated by a CMOS device: <math> P = C V^2 f </math>.
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| Since most gates do not operate/switch at every clock cycle, they are often accompanied by a factor <math>\alpha</math>, called the activity factor. Now, the dynamic power dissipation may be re-written as <math> P = \alpha C V^2 f </math>.
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| A clock in a system has an activity factor α=1, since it rises and falls every cycle. Most data has an activity factor of 0.1.<ref>K. Moiseev, A. Kolodny and S. Wimer, "Timing-aware power-optimal ordering of signals", ''ACM Transactions on Design Automation of Electronic Systems'', Volume 13 Issue 4, September 2008, [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]</ref> If correct load capacitance is estimated on a node together with its activity factor, the dynamic power dissipation at that node can be calculated effectively.
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| * '''Short circuit power dissipation'''
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| Since there is a finite rise/fall time for both pMOS and nMOS, during transition, for example, from off to on, both the transistors will be on for a small period of time in which current will find a path directly from V<sub>DD</sub> to ground, hence creating a short circuit current. Short circuit power dissipation increases with rise and fall time of the transistors.
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| An additional form of power consumption became significant in the 1990s as wires on chip became narrower and the long wires became more resistive. CMOS gates at the end of those resistive wires see slow input transitions. During the middle of these transitions, both the NMOS and PMOS logic networks are partially conductive, and current flows directly from V<sub>dd</sub> to V<sub>SS</sub>. The power thus used is called ''crowbar'' power. Careful design which avoids weakly driven long skinny wires has ameliorated this effect, and crowbar power is nearly always substantially smaller than switching power.
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| To speed up designs, manufacturers have switched to constructions that have lower voltage thresholds but because of this a modern NMOS transistor with a V<sub>th</sub> of 200 mV has a significant [[subthreshold leakage]] current. Designs (e.g. desktop processors) which include vast numbers of circuits which are not actively switching still consume power because of this leakage current. Leakage power is a significant portion of the total power consumed by such designs. [[Multi-threshold CMOS]] (MTCMOS), now available from foundries, is one approach to managing leakage power. With MTCMOS, high V<sub>th</sub> transistors are used when switching speed is not critical, while low V<sub>th</sub> transistors are used in speed sensitive paths. Further technology advances that use even thinner gate dielectrics have an additional [[Leakage (electronics)|leakage]] component because of current [[Quantum tunnelling|tunnelling]] through the extremely thin gate dielectric. Using [[high-k dielectric]]s instead of [[silicon dioxide]] that is the conventional gate dielectric allows similar device performance, but with a thicker gate insulator, thus avoiding this current. Leakage power reduction using new material and system designs is critical to sustaining scaling of CMOS.<ref>A good overview of leakage and reduction methods are explained in the book [http://www.springer.com/engineering/circuits+%26+systems/book/978-0-387-25737-2 Leakage in Nanometer CMOS Technologies] ISBN 0-387-25737-3.</ref>
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| == Analog CMOS ==
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| Besides digital applications, CMOS technology is also used in [[Analogue electronics|analog]] applications. For example, there are CMOS [[operational amplifier]] ICs available in the market. Transmission gates may be used instead of signal [[relay]]s. CMOS technology is also widely used for [[radio frequency|RF]] circuits all the way to microwave frequencies, in [[mixed-signal integrated circuit|mixed-signal]] (analog+digital) applications.
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| == Temperature range ==
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| Conventional CMOS devices work over a range of −55 °C to +125 °C. There were theoretical indications as early as August 2008 that silicon CMOS will work down to −233 °C (40 [[kelvin|K]]).<ref>Edwards C, "Temperature control", ''Engineering & Technology Magazine'' 26 July - 8 August 2008, [[Institution of Engineering and Technology|IET]]</ref> Functioning temperatures near 40 K have since been achieved using overclocked AMD [[Phenom II]] processors with a combination of liquid nitrogen and liquid helium cooling.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.amd.com/home/2009/01/15/breaking-records-with-dragons-and-helium-in-the-las-vegas-desert/ |title=Breaking Records with Dragons and Helium in the Las Vegas Desert |author=Patrick Moorhead |publisher=blogs.amd.com/patmoorhead |date=January 15, 2009 |accessdate=2009-09-18}}</ref>
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| == Single-electron CMOS transistors ==
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| Ultra small (L = 20 nm, W = 20 nm) CMOS transistors achieve the single-electron limit when operated at cryogenic temperature over a range of −269 °C (4 [[kelvin|K]]) to about −258 °C (15 [[kelvin|K]]). The transistor displays [[Coulomb blockade]] due to progressive charging of electrons one by one. The number of electrons confined in the channel is driven by the gate voltage, starting from an occupation of zero electrons, and it can be set to 1 or many.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1088/0957-4484/23/21/215204}}</ref>
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| == See also ==
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| * [[Active pixel sensor]]
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| * [[Electric (software)]] and [[Magic (software)]] are open-source software often used to lay out CMOS circuits.
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| * [[FEOL]]
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| * [[Gate equivalent]]
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| * [[HCMOS]]
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| * [[MOSFET]]
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| * [[PCMOS]]
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| == References ==
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| {{reflist|30em}}
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| == Further reading ==
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| * {{cite book |author= Baker, R. Jacob |title=CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Third Edition |publisher=Wiley-IEEE |location= |year=2010 |page=1174 |isbn=978-0-470-88132-3 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}} http://CMOSedu.com
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| * {{cite book |author=Weste, Neil H. E. and Harris, David M. |title=CMOS VLSI Design: A Circuits and Systems Perspective, Fourth Edition |publisher=Pearson/Addison-Wesley |location=Boston |year=2010 |page=840 |isbn=978-0-321-54774-3 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}} http://CMOSVLSI.com/
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| * {{cite book |author=Veendrick, Harry J. M. |title= Nanometer CMOS ICs, from Basics to ASICs |publisher=Springer |location=New York |year=2008 |page=770 |isbn=978-1-4020-8332-7 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}
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| * {{cite book |author=[[Carver Mead|Mead, Carver A.]] and [[Lynn Conway|Conway, Lynn]] |title=Introduction to VLSI systems |publisher=Addison-Wesley |location=Boston |year=1980 |pages= |isbn=0-201-04358-0 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}
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| == External links ==
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| {{Commons category}}
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| * [http://tams-www.informatik.uni-hamburg.de/applets/cmos/ CMOS gate description and interactive illustrations]
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| * [http://lasihomesite.com/ LASI] is a "general purpose" IC layout CAD tool. It is a free download and can be used as a layout tool for CMOS circuits.
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| {{Logic Families}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Cmos}}
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| [[Category:Electronic design]]
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| [[Category:Digital electronics]]
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| [[Category:Logic families]]
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| [[Category:Integrated circuits]]
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