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[[File:Macheffect.png|thumb|right|How thrust is hypothesized to be produced by the Woodward effect. The C represents a capacitor element, L represents an inductor element.]]
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The '''Woodward effect''', also referred to as a Mach effect, one of at least three predicted Mach effects, is part of a hypothesis proposed by [[James F. Woodward]] in 1990.<ref name="Woodward-1990-497">
{{cite journal
|title=A new experimental approach to Mach's principle and relativistic gravitation
|journal=[[Foundations of Physics|Foundations of Physics Letters]]
|volume=3
|issue=5
|date=October 1990
|last=Woodward
|first=James F.
|pages=497–506
|doi=10.1007/BF00665932
|accessdate=1 February 2013}}</ref>
The theory states that [[transient (oscillation)|transient]] [[mass]] fluctuations arise in any object that absorbs [[Mass–energy equivalence|internal energy]] while undergoing a [[proper acceleration]]. Harnessing this effect could generate a [[thrust]], which Woodward and others claim to measure in various experiments.<ref name="WoodwardPub1">
{{cite web
|url=http://physics.fullerton.edu/~jimw/WEBPAGE.pdf
|title=Publications 1990-2000
|last=Woodward
|first=James F.
|year=1990-2000
|format=PDF
|accessdate=3 March 2013
}}
</ref><ref name="WoodwardPub2">
{{cite web
|url=http://physics.fullerton.edu/~jimw/Woodward-3.html
|title=Recent Publications
|last=Woodward
|first=James F.
|year=2000-2005
|accessdate=20 February 2013
}}
</ref> If proven to exist, the Woodward effect could be used in the design of [[spacecraft propulsion|spacecraft engines]] of a [[field propulsion]] engine that would not have to expel matter to accelerate. Such an engine would be a breakthrough in [[Spaceflight|space travel]].<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/news/pressrel/1999/99_66addm.html|title=An Experimental Test of a Dynamic Mach's Principle Prediction
|last=Cramer|first=John G.
|publisher=NASA
|year=1999
|accessdate=3 February 2013
}}
</ref><ref name="cnet-news"/> So far, no conclusive proof of the existence of this effect has yet been presented.<ref name="io9-2013" /> Experiments to confirm and utilize this effect by Woodward and others continue.<ref name="WoodwardSpurious2013" />
 
==Mach effects==
According to Woodward there are at least three Mach effects theoretically possible: vectored impulse thrust, open curvature of spacetime, and closed curvature of spacetime.<ref name="book" />
 
The first effect, the Woodward effect, is the minimal energy effect of the theory. The Woodward effect is focused primarily on proving the theory and providing the basis of a Mach effect impulse thruster. In the first of three general Mach effects for propulsion or transport, the Woodward effect is an impulse effect usable for in-orbit satellite stationkeeping, spacecraft reaction control systems, or at best, thrust within the solar system. The second and third effects are open and closed spacetime effects. Open curved spacetime effects can be applied in a field generation system to produce warp fields. Closed curve spacetime effects would be part of a field generation system to generate wormholes.
 
With greatly increased power levels beyond the Woodward effect, Mach effects for curving or bending spacetime may be possible for both open and closed spacetime curves.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} In particular, [[frame dragging]] and [[closed timelike curves]]. Theoretically, open [[curved space]] can be used to generate warp fields for an [[Alcubierre drive]]. Experimental research is focused on the first two effects.  For over ten years now the Woodward effect has been under research to produce impulse propulsion.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} Recently, NASA started researching small curved-space effects using the  [[White–Juday warp-field interferometer]].{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}
 
The third Mach effect is a closed curve [[spacetime]] effect or [[closed timelike curve]] called a benign wormhole. Closed curve space is generally known as a [[wormhole]] or [[black hole]]. Prompted by [[Carl Sagan]] for the scientific basis of wormhole transport in the movie ''Contact'', [[Kip Thorne]]
<ref>web |URL=http://www.its.caltech.edu/~kip/</ref>
developed the theory of benign wormholes. The generation, stability and traffic control of transport through a benign wormhole is only theoretical at present. One difficulty is the requirement for energy levels approximating a "Jupiter size mass".
 
These three Mach effects - thrust, open curved space and [[closed timelike curves]] - are developed from only the first two terms in the delta mass equation since the contribution from the third effect is considered{{by whom|date=September 2013}} extremely small. There is a third term which only becomes significant when larger stellar masses are used. In the distant future, the third term may provide a source of additional Mach effects.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}}
 
==Theory==
 
===Gravity origin of inertia===
The Woodward effect is based on the relativistic effects theoretically derived from [[Mach's Principle]] on [[inertia]] within [[general relativity]] and is attributed by [[Albert Einstein]] to [[Ernst Mach]].<ref name=Einstein>
Einstein, A., Letter to Ernst Mach, Zurich, 25 June 1923, in
{{cite book
| author=Misner, Charles; Thorne, Kip S.; and Wheeler, John Archibald
| title=Gravitation
| location=San Francisco
| publisher=W. H. Freeman
| year=1973
| isbn=0-7167-0344-0
}}
</ref> Mach's Principle is generally defined as "the local inertia frame is completely determined by the dynamic fields in the Universe."<ref name="Rovelli, Carlo 2004">{{cite book
|author=Rovelli, Carlo
| title=Quantum Gravity
| publisher= Cambridge Press
| year= 2004
| isbn=978-0521715966
}}</ref>
 
A formulation of Mach's principle has been firstly proposed as a vector theory of gravity, modeled on [[Maxwell's equations|Maxwell's formalism]] for [[Classical electromagnetism|electrodynamics]], by [[Dennis William Sciama|Dennis Sciama]] in 1953,<ref name="Sciama1953">
{{cite journal
| author=Sciama, D. W.
| title=On the Origin of Inertia
| journal=Royal Astronomical Society
| volume=113
| pages=34–42
| year=1953
| bibcode=1953MNRAS.113...34S
}}</ref> who then reformulated it in a [[tensor]] formalism equivalent to general relativity in 1964.<ref name="Sciama1964">
{{cite journal
| author=Sciama, D.W.
| title=The Physical Structure of General Relativity
| journal=Rev. Mod. Phys.
| year=1964
| volume=36
| issue=1
| pages=463–469
| doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.36.463
| url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.36.463
|bibcode = 1964RvMP...36..463S }}
</ref>
 
Sciama stated that instantaneous inertial forces in all accelerating objects are produced by a primordial gravity-based inertial [[Radiation|radiative]] [[Field (physics)|field]] (now referred as "G/I field" or "gravinertial field") created by distant cosmic matter and propagating both forwards ''and'' backwards in time at light speed. As previously formulated by Sciama, Woodward suggests that [[Wheeler-Feynman absorber theory]] would be the correct way to understand the action of instantaneous inertial forces in Machian terms.<ref name="WoodwardRadiationReaction">
{{cite web
|url=http://physics.fullerton.edu/~jimw/general/radreact/
|title=Radiation Reaction
|last1=Woodward
|first1=James F.
|year=1998
}}
</ref><ref name="Woodward1999">
{{cite journal
| last1=Woodward
| first1=James F.
| last2=Mahood
| first2=Thomas
| title=What is the Cause of Inertia?
| journal=[[Foundations of Physics|Foundations of Physics Letters]]
| volume=29
| issue=6
| date=June 1999
| pages=899–930
| doi=10.1023/A:1018821328482
| url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A%3A1018821328482
}}
</ref><ref name="Woodward2001a">
{{Cite journal
| last1=Woodward
| first1=James F.
| title=Gravity, Inertia, and Quantum Vacuum Zero Point Fields
| journal=Foundations of Physics
| volume=31
| issue=5
| date=May 2001
| pages=819–835
| doi=10.1023/A:1017500513005
}}
</ref>
 
Sciama's inertial-induction idea has been shown to be correct in Einstein's general relativity for any [[Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric|Friedmann-Robertson-Walker cosmology]].<ref name="Gilman1970">
{{cite journal
| author1= Gilman, R.C.
| title=Machian Theory of Inertia and Gravitation
| journal=[[Physical Review|Physical Review D]]
| date=March 12, 1970
| volume=2
| issue=8
| pages=1400–1410
| publisher=[[American Physical Society]]
| location=College Park, MD
| publication-date=October 15, 1970
| doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.2.1400
|bibcode = 1970PhRvD...2.1400G }}
</ref><ref name="Raine1975">
{{cite journal
| author=Raine, D.J.
| title=Mach's principle in general relativity
| journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]
| date=June 1975
| volume=171
| pages=507–528
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| bibcode=1975MNRAS.171..507R
}}
</ref> According to Woodward, the Mach effects derivation is relativistically invariant, so the conservation laws are satisfied, and no "new physics" is involved besides general relativity.<ref name="WoodwardOverview">
{{cite web
|url=http://physics.fullerton.edu/~jimw/general/
|title=Gravitation: Overview
|last1=Woodward
|first1=James F.
|year=1998
}}
</ref>
 
===Transient mass fluctuation===
The following has been detailed by Woodward in various peer-reviewed papers throughout the last twenty years.<ref name="WoodwardSpurious2012" /><ref name="MUSH" /><ref name="Woodward2004b">
{{Cite journal
| last1=Woodward
| first1=James F.
| title=Flux Capacitors and the Origin of Inertia
| journal=Foundations of Physics
| volume=34
| issue=10
| date=October 2004
| pages=1475–1514
| doi=10.1023/B:FOOP.0000044102.03268.46
| url=http://physics.fullerton.edu/~jimw/flux-cap.pdf
|bibcode = 2004FoPh...34.1475W }}
</ref>
 
According to Woodward, a transient mass fluctuation arises in an object when it absorbs "internal" energy as it is accelerated. Several devices could be built to [[Accumulator (energy)|store internal energy]] during accelerations. A measurable effect needs to be driven at a high [[frequency]], so [[Macroscopic scale|macroscopic]] [[mechanical system]]s are out of question since the rate at which their internal energy could be modified is too limited. The only systems that could run at a high frequency are [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] energy storage devices. For fast transient effects, [[Battery (electricity)|batteries]] are ruled out. A magnetic energy storage device like an [[inductor]] using a high [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] [[Magnetic core|core material]] to transfer the [[magnetic energy]] could be especially built. But [[capacitor]]s are preferable to inductors because compact devices storing energy at a very high [[energy density]] without [[electrical breakdown]] are readily available. Shielding [[Electromagnetic interference|electrical interferences]] are easier than [[Magnetic shielding#Magnetic shielding|shielding magnetic]] ones. [[Ferroelectricity|Ferroelectric]] materials can be used to make high frequency [[Linear actuator#Electro-mechanical actuators|electro-mechanical actuators]], and they are themselves capacitors so they can be used for both energy storage and acceleration. Finally, capacitors are cheap and available in various configurations. So Mach effects experiments have always relied on capacitors so far.
 
When the [[dielectric]] of a capacitor is submitted to a varying [[electric power]] (charge or discharge) along a proper acceleration, a transient mass fluctuation arises according to the equation:
 
<math>
\delta m_0 =
\frac{1}{4\pi G}\left[\frac{1}{\rho_0 c^2}\frac{\partial P}{\partial t} -
\left(\frac{1}{\rho_0 c^2}\right)^2 \frac{P^2}{V}\right]
</math>
 
Where:
* <math>m_0</math> is the [[invariant mass|proper mass]] of the dielectric
* <math>G</math> is the [[gravitational constant]]
* <math>c</math> is the [[speed of light]] in vacuum
* <math>\rho_0</math> is the proper [[density]] of the dielectric
* <math>V</math> is the volume of the dielectric
* <math>P</math> is the instantaneous power delivered to the system
 
===Propellantless propulsion===
The previous equation shows that when the [[dielectric]] material of a [[capacitor]] is cyclically charged then discharged while being accelerated, its [[Density|mass density]] fluctuates, by around plus or minus its [[Invariant mass|rest mass]] value. Then a device can be made to [[oscillate]] either in a linear or orbital path, such that its mass density is higher while the mass is moving forward, and lower while moving backward. Thus creating an [[acceleration]] of the device in the forward direction, i.e. a thrust. This effect, used repeatedly, does not expel any [[particle]] and thus would represent a type of apparent [[Reactionless drive|propellantless propulsion]], which seems to be in contradiction with [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's third law of motion]]. However, Woodward states there is no violation of momentum conservation in Mach effects:<ref name="WoodwardSpurious2012" />
{{cquote
|''If we produce a fluctuating mass in an object, we can, at least in principle, use it to produce a stationary force on the object, thereby producing a propulsive force thereon without having to expel propellant from the object. We simply push on the object when it is more massive, and pull back when it is less massive. The reaction forces during the two parts of the cycle will not be the same due to the mass fluctuation, so a time-averaged net force will be produced. '''This may seem to be a violation of momentum conservation. But the [[Lorentz invariance]] of the theory guarantees that no conservation law is broken. Local momentum conservation is preserved by the [[flux]] of [[momentum]] in the gravity field that is chiefly exchanged with the distant matter in the universe.'''''
}}
 
Two terms are important for propulsion on the right-hand side of the previous equation:
* The first, [[linear equation|linear term]] <math>\tfrac{1}{\rho_0 c^2}\tfrac{\partial P}{\partial t}</math> is called the "[[impulse (physics)|impulse]] engine" term because it expresses mass fluctuation depending on the derivative of the power, and scales linearly with the frequency.  Past and current experiments about Mach effects [[wikt:thruster|thruster]]s are designed to demonstrate thrust and the control of one type of Mach effect.
* The second, [[quadratic equation|quadratic term]] <math>-\left(\tfrac{1}{\rho_0 c^2}\right)^2 \tfrac{P^2}{V}</math> is what Woodward calls the "[[wormhole]]" term, because ''it is always negative''. Although this term appears to be many [[Order of magnitude|orders of magnitude]] weaker than the first term, which makes it usually negligible, theoretically, the second term's effect could become huge in some circumstances. The second term, the wormhole term, is indeed driven by the first impulse engine term, which fluctuates mass by around plus or minus the rest mass value. When fluctuations reach a very high amplitude and mass density is driven very close to zero, the equation shows that mass should achieve very large negative values very quickly, with a strong non-linear behavior. In this regard, the Woodward effect could generate [[exotic matter]], although this still remains very speculative due to the lack of any available experiment that would highlight such an effect.
 
==Space travel==
Current [[spacecraft]] achieve a change in velocity by the expulsion of [[propellant]], the extraction of momentum from the [[stellar wind]] or the utilisation of a [[gravity assist]] ("slingshot") from a planet or moon. These methods are limiting in that [[rocket propellant]]s have to be accelerated as well and are eventually depleted, and the stellar wind or the gravitational fields of planets can only be utilized locally in the [[Solar System]]. In [[interstellar space]] and bereft of the above resources, different forms of propulsion are needed to propel a spacecraft, and they are referred to as advanced or [[Interstellar travel#Faster-than-light travel: warped spacetime and wormholes|exotic]].<ref>
{{cite web
|last1=Zampino|first1=Edward J.
|title=Critical Problems for Interstellar Propulsion Systems
|publisher=NASA
|url=http://ralph.open-aerospace.org/deep/repository/zampino2.pdf
|date=June 1998
|accessdate=3 March 2013
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|last1=Johnson|first1=Les
|title=Interstellar Propulsion Research: Realistic Possibilities and Idealistic Dreams
|publisher=NASA
|url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20090020444_2009016488.pdf
|year=2010
|accessdate=3 March 2013
}}
</ref>
 
===Impulse engine===
If the Woodward effect is confirmed and if an engine can be designed to use applied Mach effects, then  a spacecraft may be possible that could maintain a steady acceleration into and through interstellar space without the need to carry along propellants. Woodward presented a paper about the concept at the [[NASA]] [[Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program]] Workshop conference in 1997,<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://physics.fullerton.edu/~jimw/nasa-pap/
|title=Mach's Principle and Impulse Engines: Toward a Viable Physics of Star Trek?
|last=Woodward
|first=James F.
|date=August 1997
|accessdate=1 February 2013
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite journal
|last1=Mills|first1=Marc G.
|title=NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Workshop Proceedings
|publisher=NASA
|url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19990023204
|pages=367–374
|date=August 1997
|accessdate=1 February 2013
}}</ref>
and continued to publish on this subject thereafter.<ref name="Woodward2001b">
{{Cite conference
| last1=Woodward
| first1=James F.
| last2=Mahood
| first2=Thomas L.
| last3=March
| first3=Paul
| title=Rapid Spacetime Transport and Machian Mass Fluctuations: Theory and Experiment
| date=July 2001
| conference=37<sup>th</sup> AIAA/ASME Joint Propulsion Conference, Salt Lake City, UT
| booktitle=JPC 2001 Proceedings
| publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
| doi=10.2514/6.2001-3907
| url=http://physics.fullerton.edu/~jimw/Jpcawf1.pdf
}}
</ref><ref name="Woodward2003a">
{{Cite journal
| last1=Woodward
| first1=James F.
| title=Breakthrough Propulsion and the Foundations of Physics
| journal=Foundations of Physics Letters
| volume=16
| issue=1
| date=February 2003
| pages=25–40
| doi=10.1023/A:1024198022814
}}
</ref><ref name="Woodward2004a">
{{Cite conference
| last=Woodward
| first=James F.
| title=Life Imitating "Art": Flux Capacitors, Mach Effects, and Our Future in Spacetime
| date=February 2004
| conference=Space Technology Applications International Forum (STAIF 2004), Albuquerque, NM
| booktitle=AIP Conference Proceedings
| volume=699
| pages=1127–1137
| publisher=American Institute of Physics
| doi=10.1063/1.1649682
}}
</ref><ref name="Woodward2005">
{{Cite conference
| last=Woodward
| first=James F.
| title=Tweaking Flux Capacitors
| date=February 2005
| conference=Space Technology Applications International Forum (STAIF 2005), Albuquerque, NM
| booktitle=AIP Conference Proceedings
| volume=746
| pages=1345–1352
| publisher=American Institute of Physics
| doi=10.1063/1.1867264
}}
</ref>
 
Even ignoring for the moment the impact on [[interstellar travel]], future spacecraft driven by impulse engines based on Mach effects would represent an astounding breakthrough in terms of [[interplanetary spaceflight]] alone, enabling the rapid [[space colonization|colonization]] of our entire solar system. Travel times being limited only by the specific power of the available power supplies and the acceleration human physiology can endure, they would allow crews to reach any moon or planet in less than three weeks. For example, a typical one-way trip at [[g-force|1 g]] acceleration from the Earth to the [[Moon]] would last only about 4 hours; to [[Mars]], 2 to 5 days; to the [[asteroid belt]], 5 to 6 days; to [[Jupiter]], 6 to 7 days.<ref name="March2007">
{{cite conference
| last=March
| first=Paul
| title=Mach‐Lorentz Thruster Spacecraft Applications
| date=February 2007
| conference=Space Technology and Applications International Forum-STAIFF 2007, Albuquerque, NM
| booktitle=AIP Conference Proceedings
| volume=880
| issue=1
| pages=1063–1070
| publisher=[[American Institute of Physics]]
| location=College Park, MD
| doi=10.1063/1.2437551
| url=http://proceedings.aip.org/resource/2/apcpcs/880/1/1063_1
}}</ref>
 
===Warp drives and wormholes===
As showed by the transient mass fluctuation equation above, exotic matter could be theoretically created. And yet large quantity of negative [[energy density]] in scientific literature would be the key element needed to create warp drives<ref name="Alcubierre">
{{cite journal
| author=Alcubierre, Miguel
| title=The warp drive: hyper-fast travel within general relativity
| journal=[[Classical and Quantum Gravity]]
| year=1994
| volume=11
| issue=5
| pages=L73–L77
| doi=10.1088/0264-9381/11/5/001
| arxiv=gr-qc/0009013
| bibcode=1994CQGra..11L..73A
}}
</ref> as well as traversable [[wormhole]]s.<ref name="time travel">
{{cite journal
| last1=Morris
| first1=Michael
| last2=Thorne
| first2=Kip
| last3=Yurtsever
| first3=Ulvi
| title=Wormholes, Time Machines, and the Weak Energy Condition
| journal=Physical Review Letters
| year=1988
| volume=61
| issue=13
| pages=1446–1449
| doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.61.1446
| pmid=10038800
| bibcode=1988PhRvL..61.1446M
| url=http://authors.library.caltech.edu/9262/1/MORprl88.pdf
}}
</ref> So if proven to be scientifically valid, practically feasible and scaling as predicted by the theory, the Woodward effect could not only be used for interplanetary travel, but also for apparent [[faster-than-light]] interstellar travel:
* The [[negative mass]] could be used to warp spacetime around a spaceship according to an [[Alcubierre metric]].<ref name="MUSH" /><ref name="Alcubierre" />
* Enough exotic matter could also be concentrated into a point of space to create a [[wormhole]], and prevent it from collapsing. Woodward and others also state that exotic matter could defocus energy at the outer mouth of the [[wormhole]] (making it a [[white hole]]) and shape the throat of such a [[gravitational singularity]] flat enough to avoid [[Event horizon|horizon]] and [[Tidal force|tidal]] stresses, resulting in an "absurdly benign traversable [[wormhole]]" linking two regions of distant spacetime, a concept well spread in science fiction as [[stargate]]s.<ref name="book">
{{cite book
| last= Woodward
| first= James F.
| authorlink= James F. Woodward
| title= Making Starships and Stargates: The Science of Interstellar Transport and Absurdly Benign Wormholes
| url= http://www.springer.com/engineering/mechanical+engineering/book/978-1-4614-5622-3
| edition= 2013
| series= Space Exploration, Springer Praxis Books
| date= December 14, 2012
| publisher= Springer Publishing
| location= NYC
| isbn= 978-1-4614-5623-0
}}
</ref><ref name="MUSH">
{{Cite journal
| last=Woodward
| first=James F.
| title=Making the universe safe for historians: Time travel and the laws of physics
| journal=Foundations of Physics Letters
| volume=8
| issue=1
| date=February 1995
| pages=1–39
| doi=10.1007/BF02187529
| url=http://physics.fullerton.edu/~jimw/MUSH.pdf
|bibcode = 1995FoPhL...8....1W }}
</ref><ref name="time travel" /><ref name="Woodward1997">
{{Cite journal
| last1=Woodward
| first1=James F.
| title=Twists of fate: Can we make traversable wormholes in spacetime?
| journal=Foundations of Physics Letters
| volume=10
| issue=2
| date=April 1997
| pages=153–181
| doi=10.1007/BF02764237
| url=http://physics.fullerton.edu/~jimw/twistsoffate.pdf
|bibcode = 1997FoPhL..10..153W }}
</ref><ref name="Woodward2011">
{{Cite conference
| last=Woodward
| first=James F.
| title=Making Stargates: The Physics of Traversable Absurdly Benign Wormholes
| year=2011
| conference=Space, Propulsion & Energy Sciences International Forum-SPESIF 2011
| booktitle=Physics Procedia
| volume=20
| pages=24–46
| publisher=[[Elsevier|Elsevier Press]]
| doi=10.1016/j.phpro.2011.08.003
| url=http://physics.fullerton.edu/~jimw/stargates.pdf
}}
</ref>
 
==Patents and practical devices==
Two patents have been issued to Woodward and associates based on how the Woodward effect might be used in practical devices for producing thrust:
* In 1994, the first patent was granted, titled: "Method And Apparatus To Generate Thrust By Inertial Mass Variance".<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.gyroscopes.org/patents/5280864Woodward.pdf
|title=US Patent #5,280,864 Method And Apparatus To Generate Thrust By Inertial Mass Variance
|date=25 January 1994
|accessdate= 20 February 2013
}}
</ref>
* In 2002, a second patent was granted, titled: "Method And Apparatus For Generating Propulsive Forces Without The Ejection Of Propellant".<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=6347766.PN.&OS=PN/6347766&RS=PN/6347766
|title=US Patent #6,347,766 "Method And Apparatus For Generating Propulsive Forces Without The Ejection Of Propellant" James Woodward and Thomas Mahood
|accessdate= 23 December 2008
}}
</ref>
 
Woodward and his associates have claimed since the 1990s to have successfully measured forces at levels great enough for practical use and also claim to be working on the development of a practical prototype [[wikt:thruster|thruster]]. No practical working devices have yet been publicly demonstrated.<ref name="WoodwardPub1" /><ref name="WoodwardPub2" /><ref name="io9-2013" /><ref name="WoodwardSpurious2012" />
 
==Experiments==
 
===Test devices===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:All PZT Mach effect thruster test unit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Photograph of the PZT stack of a Mach effect test device.]] -->
[[File:Woodward Effect Device.png|thumb|250px|right|Photograph of the 2006 Woodward effect MLT test article.]]
Woodward started to design and build devices using capacitors and a series of [[Lead zirconate titanate|PZT]] thick disks. This ceramic is [[piezoelectric]], so it can be used as an electromechanical actuator to accelerate an object placed against it: its [[Crystal structure|crystalline structure]] expands when a certain [[electrical polarity]] is applied, then contracts when the opposite field is applied.
 
In the first tests, Woodward simply used a [[capacitor]] between two stacks of PZT disks. The capacitor, while being electrically charged to change its internal energy density, is shuttled back and forth between the PZT actuators. [[Piezoelectric]] materials can also generate a measurable voltage potential across their two faces when pressed, so Woodward firstly used some small portions of PZT material as little [[accelerometer]]s put on the surface of the stack, to precisely tune the device with the power supply. Then Woodward realized that PZT material and the [[dielectric]] of a capacitor were very similar. So he built devices that are made exclusively of PZT disks, without any conventional capacitor, applying different signals to different portions of the cylindrical stack. The available picture taken by his graduate student Tom Mahood in 1999 shows a typical all-PZT stack with different disks:<ref name=mahood>{{cite web
|url=http://www.otherhand.org/home-page/physics/graduate-studies-in-physics-at-cal-state-university-fullerton/
|title=Graduate studies in Physics at Cal State University, Fullerton
|last=Mahood
|first=Thomas
|
|accessdate=27 January 2014}}</ref>
* The outer, thicker disks on the left and right are the "shuttlers".
* The inner stack of thin disks in the center are the shuttled capacitors storing energy during acceleration, where any mass shift would occur.  
* The even thinner disks placed between the shuttlers and on both side of the inner disk capacitors are the "squeezometers' acting as accelerometers.
During forward acceleration and before the transient mass change in the capacitor decays, the resultant increased [[momentum]] is transferred forward to a bulk "reaction mass" through an [[elastic collision]] (the [[brass]] end cap on the left in the picture). Conversely, the following decrease in the mass density takes place during its backward movement.  
While operating, the PZT stack is isolated in a Faraday cage and put on a sensitive [[torsion spring|torsion]] arm for thrust measurements, inside a vacuum chamber. Along the years, a wide variety of different types of devices and experimental setups have been tested. The force measuring setups have ranged from various load cell devices to [[ballistic pendulum]]s to multiple [[torsion spring|torsion]] arm pendulums, in which movement is actually observed. Those setups have been improved against spurious effects by isolating and canceling thermal transfers, vibration and electromagnetic interference, while getting better current feeds and bearings. Null tests were also conducted.<ref name="WoodwardSpurious2013" />
 
Another type of Mach effects [[wikt:thruster|thruster]] is the Mach-Lorentz [[wikt:thruster|thruster]] (MLT). It uses a charging [[capacitor]] embedded in a magnetic field created by a magnetic coil. A Lorentz force, cross product between the electric field and the magnetic field, appears and acts upon the ions inside the capacitor dielectric. In such electromagnetic experiments, the power can be applied at frequencies of several megahertz, unlike PZT stack actuators where frequency is limited to tens of kilohertz. The photograph shows the components of a Woodward effect test article used in a 2006 experiment.<ref name="AIP1" />
 
In the future, Woodward plans to scale thrust levels, switching from the current [[piezoelectricity|piezoelectric]] [[dielectric]] [[ceramic]]s ([[Lead zirconate titanate|PZT]] stacks) to new [[High-k dielectric]] [[nanocomposite]] [[polymer]]s, like [[Electrostriction#Materials|PMN]], [[Electrostriction#Materials|PMN-PT]] or [[Calcium copper titanate|CCTO]]. Nevertheless, such materials are new, quite difficult to find, and are [[Electrostriction|electrostrictive]], not piezoelectric.<ref name="Scaling">
{{cite web |url=http://nextbigfuture.com/2012/08/scaling-mach-effect-propulsion.html|title=Scaling Mach Effect Propulsion|publisher=nextbigfuture.com|date=16 August 2012}}
</ref><ref>{{cite journal
|author= Lunkenheimer, Peter and Al.
|title=Colossal dielectric constant up to GHz at room temperature
|journal=[[Applied Physics Letters]]
|year=2009
|volume=91
|doi=10.1063/1.3105993
|arxiv = 0811.1556v2
|article= 122903|bibcode = 2009ApPhL..94l2903K }}
</ref>
 
In 2013, the [[Space Studies Institute]] announced the Exotic Propulsion Initiative, a new project privately funded aimed to replicate Woodward's experiments and then, if proven successful, fully develop exotic propulsion.<ref name=ssi>{{cite web
|url=http://ssi.org/2013/04/exotic-propulsion-initiative/
|title=Exotic Propulsion Initiative
|date=30 April 2013
|publisher=Space Studies Institute
|accessdate=27 January 2014}}
</ref>
 
===Results===
From his initial paper onward Woodward has claimed that this effect is detectable with modern technology.<ref name="Woodward-1990-497" /> He and others have performed and continue to perform experiments to detect the small forces that are predicted to be produced by this effect. So far some groups claim to have detected forces at the levels predicted and other groups have detected forces at much greater than predicted levels or nothing at all. To date there has been no announcement conclusively confirming proof for the existence of this effect or ruling it out.<ref name="io9-2013" />
 
* In 1990, Woodward's original paper on Mach effects included an experiment with results.<ref name="Woodward-1990-497" />
 
* In 1999, Thomas L. Mahood, Woodward's [[graduate student]] from 1997 to 1999, reported thrusts ranging from 0.03 to 15&nbsp;µN in a setup comprising a torque pendulum in a vacuum chamber, at the [[Space Technology and Applications International Forum]] (STAIF) and in his [[Master of Science|Master of Science in Physics]] [[thesis]].<ref name="Mahood1999">
{{Cite conference
| last=Mahood
| first=Thomas L.
| title=Propellantless propulsion: Recent experimental results exploiting transient mass modification
| date=February 1999
| conference=Space Technology and Applications International Forum-STAIFF 2000, Albuquerque, NM
| booktitle=AIP Conference Proceedings
| volume=458
| pages=1014–1020
| publisher=American Institute of Physics
| doi=10.1063/1.57494
| url=http://www.otherhand.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/STAIF99-Paper-Mahood.pdf
}}
</ref><ref name="MahoodThesis">
{{Cite thesis
| degree=M.Sc.
| title=A torsion pendulum investigation of transient Machian effects
| last=Mahood
| first=Thomas Louis
| date=November 11, 1999
| publisher=California State University, Fullerton
| url=http://www.otherhand.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Tom-Mahood-Masters-Thesis.pdf
}}
</ref>
 
* As of 2003, Hector Brito of the Instituto Universitario Aeronáutico (IUA) and Sergio Elaskar of the [[National Scientific and Technical Research Council]], [[Argentina]], reported thrusts of about 50&nbsp;µN.<ref name="Brito2003">
{{cite conference
| last1=Brito
| first1=Hector H.
| last2=Elaskar
| first2=Sergio A.
| title=Direct Experimental Evidence of Electromagnetic Inertia Manipulation Thrusting
| date=July 2003
| conference=39<sup>th</sup> AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Huntsville, AL
| booktitle= Joint Propulsion Conference Proceedings
| publisher=[[American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics]]
| doi=10.2514/6.2003-4989
}}
</ref><ref name="Brito2004">
{{cite journal
| last1=Brito
| first1=Hector H.
| title=Experimental status of thrusting by electromagnetic inertia manipulation
| journal=Acta Astronautica
| publisher=[[International Academy of Astronautics]]
| date=April 2004
| volume=54
| issue=8
| pages=547–558
| doi=10.1016/S0094-5765(03)00225-X
}}
</ref><ref name="Brito2005">
{{cite conference
| last1=Brito
| first1=Hector H.
| last2=Elaskar
| first2=Sergio A.
| title=Overview of Theories and Experiments on Electromagnetic Inertia Manipulation Propulsion
| date=February 2005
| conference=Space Technology and Applications International Forum-STAIFF 2005, Albuquerque, NM
| booktitle=AIP Conference Proceedings
| volume=746
| pages=1395–1402
| publisher=American Institute of Physics
| doi=10.1063/1.1867270
}}
</ref><ref name="Brito2007">
{{cite journal
| last1=Brito
| first1=Hector H.
| last2=Elaskar
| first2=Sergio A.
| title=Direct Experimental Evidence of Electromagnetic Inertia Manipulation Thrusting
| journal=Journal of Propulsion and Power
| publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
| date=March–April 2007
| volume=23
| issue=2
| pages=487–494
| doi=10.2514/1.18897
}}
</ref>
 
* In 2004, Paul March of [[Lockheed Martin Space Systems|Lockheed Martin Space Operations]], who started working in this research field as of 1998, presented successful replication of Woodward's previous experiments at STAIF.<ref name="">
{{Cite conference
| last=March
| first=Paul
| title=Woodward Effect Experimental Verifications
| date=February 2004
| conference=Space Technology and Applications International Forum-STAIFF 2004, Albuquerque, NM
| booktitle=AIP Conference Proceedings
| volume=699
| pages=1138–1145
| publisher=American Institute of Physics
| doi=10.1063/1.1649683
}}
</ref>
 
* In 2004, [[John G. Cramer]] and coworkers of the [[University of Washington]] reported for the [[NASA]] that they had made an experiment to test Woodward's hypothesis, but that results were inconclusive because their setup was undergoing strong electrical interference which would have masked the effects of the test if it had been conducted.<ref name="Cramer2004">
{{Cite report
| last1=Cramer
| first1=John
| last2=Millis
| first2=Marc G.
| last3=Fay
| first3=Curran W.
| last4= Casissi
| first4=Damon V.
| title=Tests of Mach's Principle With a Mechanical Oscillator
| date=October 2004
| publisher=NASA
| location=Glenn Research Center
| url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20050080680
}}</ref>
 
* In 2006, Paul March and Andrew Palfreyman reported experimental results exceeding Woodward's predictions by one to two orders of magnitude. Items used for this experiment are shown in the photograph above.<ref name="AIP1">
{{cite conference
| last1=March
| first1=Paul
| last2=Palfreyman
| first2=Andrew
| title=The Woodward Effect: Math Modeling and Continued Experimental Verifications at 2 to 4 MHz
| date=January 2006
| conference=Space Technology and Applications International Forum-STAIFF 2006, Albuquerque, NM
| booktitle=AIP Conference Proceedings
| volume=813
| issue=1
| pages=1321–1332
| publisher=[[American Institute of Physics]]
| doi=10.1063/1.2169317
| url=http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?action=dlattach;topic=31119.0;attach=496011
}}</ref>
 
* In 2006, [[Martin Tajmar]], Nembo Buldrini, Klaus Marhold and Bernhard Seifert, researchers of the [[Austrian Research Centers]] reported results of a study of the effect using a very sensitive thrust balance. The researchers recommended further tests.<ref name="Tajmar2006">
{{Cite conference
| last1=Buldrini
| first1=Nembo
| last2=Tajmar
| first2=Martin
| last3=Marhold
| first3=Klaus
| last4=Seifert
| first4=Bernhard
| title=Experimental Study of the Machian Mass Fluctuation Effect Using a μN Thrust Balance
| date=February 2006
| conference=Space Technology and Applications International Forum-STAIFF 2006, Albuquerque, NM
| booktitle=AIP Conference Proceedings
| volume=813
| pages=1313–1320
| publisher=American Institute of Physics
| doi=10.1063/1.2169316
}}</ref>
 
* In 2010, Ricardo Marini and Eugenio Galian of the IUA (same Argentine institute as Hector Brito's) replicated previous experiments, but their results were negative and the measured effects declared as originating from spurious electromagnetic interferences only.<ref name="Marini2010">
{{Cite journal
| last1=Marini
| first1=Ricardo L.
| last2= Galian
| first2=Eugenio S.
| title=Torsion Pendulum Investigation of Electromagnetic Inertia Manipulation Thrusting
| journal=Journal of Propulsion and Power
| volume=26
| issue=6
| date=November–December 2010
| pages=1283–1290.
| doi=10.2514/1.46541
}}
</ref>
 
* In 2011, [[Harold Sonny White (NASA Scientist)|Harrold "Sonny" White]] of [[NASA]] Eagleworks laboratory and his team announced that they were rerunning devices from Paul March's 2006 experiment<ref name=AIP1 /> using force sensors with improved sensitivity.<ref name="Sonny2011">
{{cite web
|author1=Dr. Harold “Sonny” White
|author2=Paul March
|author3=Nehemiah Williams
|author4=William O’Neill
|url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20110023492_2011024705.pdf
|title=Eagleworks Laboratories: Advanced Propulsion Physics Research
|date=December 2, 2011
|accessdate=31 January 2013|publisher=NASA
}}
</ref>
 
* In 2012 and 2013, Woodward and Heidi Fearn of [[California State University, Fullerton]], announced the results of more experiments, searching hypothetical spurious causes that could originate from thermal, electromagnetic or [[Dean drive]] effects, which they declared being ruled out.<ref name="WoodwardSpurious2013">
{{cite arXiv
|last1=Fearn
|first1=Heidi
|last2=Woodward
|first2=James F.
|eprint=1301.6178
|class=physics.ins-det
|title=Experimental Null test of a Mach Effect Thruster
|year=2013
}}
</ref><ref name="WoodwardSpurious2012">
{{cite journal
| author = Fearn, Heidi and Woodward, James F.
| title = [http://electron.fullerton.edu/~neo/jpc2012.pdf Recent Results of an Investigation of Mach Effect Thrusters]
| journal = AIAA Journal
| volume = JPC 2012
| issue = 48th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit and 10th International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Atlanta, Georgia
| year = 2012
| doi = 10.2514/6.2012-3861
}}
</ref><ref name="FearnSpurious2012">
{{Cite conference
| last=Fearn
| first=Heidi
| title=Recent Theory & Experimental work on Mach Effect Thrusters
| date=October 5, 2012
| conference=Advanced Space Propulsion Workshop (ASPW 2012), Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL
| booktitle=Proceedings
| publisher=NASA
| url=http://physics.fullerton.edu/~jimw/ASPW2012.pdf
}}
</ref>
 
==Debate==
 
=== Inertial Frames ===
 
All inertial frames are in a state of constant, rectilinear motion with respect to one another; they are not accelerating in the sense that an accelerometer at rest in one would detect zero acceleration. Despite their ubiquitous nature, inertial frames are still not fully understood. That they exist is certain, but what causes them to exist – and if these sources could constitute reaction-media – are still unknown.  Marc Millis, of the NASA [[Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program]], stated " ''For example, the notion of thrusting without propellant evokes objections of violating conservation of momentum. This, in turn, suggests that space drive research must address conservation of momentum. From there it is found that many relevant unknowns still linger regarding the source of the inertial frames against which conservation is referenced. Therefore, research should revisit the unfinished physics of inertial frames, but in the context of propulsive interactions.'' "<ref name="Millis2010">
{{cite web
|author=Millis, M. G.
|title=Progress in Revolutionary Propulsion Physics
|publisher=International Astronautical Federation
|year=2010
|url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1101.1063.pdf
|accessdate=28 February 2013}}
</ref> [[Mach's Principle]] is generally defined within [[general relativity]] as "the local inertia frame is completely determined by the dynamic fields in the Universe." Rovelli evaluated a number versions of "Mach's principle" that exist in the literature. Some are partially correct and some have been dismissed as incorrect.<ref name="Rovelli, Carlo 2004"/>
 
===Conservation of energy===
 
A device employing the Woodward Effect is predicted to exhibit constant acceleration in free space, when operating at constant electrical input power, because the unidirectional force it is purported to produce is fixed when the input power is fixed. Thus the output energy of this system (kinetic energy) will increase proportionally to the square of the elapsed time, whereas the input (electrical) energy will increase only as the linear time elapsed. At some critical time (or some velocity, or at some distance) the available output energy will exceed the sum total of the energy input, and thus the device will behave as an "over-unity" device and produce "free energy". The longer it is allowed to accelerate, the more pronounced will this effect become. Citing "Lorentz invariance" is no defense against this simple observation.
 
===Conservation of momentum===
 
[[Momentum]] is defined as mass times velocity or m v. Conservation of momentum applies to velocity terms, usually described in a two dimensional plane with a [[Euclidean vector|vector]] diagram. A vector representing velocity has both direction and magnitude.  A requirement for determining conservation of momentum is the correct [[inertial frame]] for the observer or [[frame of reference]]. [[Inertial frames]] are well defined for constant velocity and as a result, conservation of momentum. During acceleration or a change in acceleration, conservation of momentum applies to the local inertial frame (LIF) of instantaneous velocity, not [[proper acceleration]] or [[coordinate acceleration]].
{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}}
 
A change in [[momentum]] is represented usually by a force where F = ma.  Physicists use the technical definition, F=d(mv)/dt, which can be expanded to F=m dv/dt + dm/dt v. This second term has both delta mass and v which is measured instantaneously. A key issue for theorists is to identify the inertial frame (dv/dt=0), for the two terms. The inertial frames for each of these terms are in conflict, since one is for velocity and the other acceleration.
 
An equation for the delta mass was developed by Woodward (see above, the equation is a derivation from Sciama's Mach effect equations) with multiple effects. Based on general relativity, there are multiple effects, or Mach effects, which are inertial effects or [[induced gravity]] .
 
Although the momentum and energy exchange with distant matter guarantees global conservation of energy and momentum, this [[Field (physics)|field]] exchange is supplied at no material cost, unlike the case with conventional fuels. For this reason, when the [[Field (physics)|field]] exchange is ignored, a propellantless [[wikt:thruster|thruster]] behaves locally like a free energy device. This is immediately apparent from basic Newtonian analysis: if constant power produces constant thrust, then input energy is linear with time and output (kinetic) energy is quadratic with time. Thus there exists a break-even time (or distance) of operation, above which more energy is output than is input.
 
Applications of propellantless propulsion include straight line [[wikt:thruster|thruster]] or impulse engine,  open curved fields for starship [[warp drive]]s, and even the possibility of closed curved fields such as traversable benign [[wormhole]]s. 
<ref>{{cite web
|author=Ramos, Debra Cano
|title=Starships, Stargates, Wormholes and Interstellar Travel: Science Historian and Physicist Contemplates the Challenging Physics of Space Travel
|url=http://news.fullerton.edu/2013sp/Woodward-Book.asp
|date=19 February 2013
|accessdate=2 March 2013}}
</ref>
 
===Mathematics challenge===
A challenge to the mathematical foundations of Woodward's theory were raised in a paper published by the [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] in 2001. In the paper, John Whealton noted that the experimental results of Oak Ridge scientists can be explained in terms of force contributions due to time varying [[thermal expansion]], and stated that a laboratory demonstration produced 100 times the Woodward effect without resorting to non-Newtonian explanations.<ref>
{{cite web
|first=J.H.|last=Whealton
|url=http://www.osti.gov/bridge/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=788523
|title=Revised Theory of Transient Mass Fluctuations|publisher=United States Department of Energy
|date=4 September 2001
|accessdate=3 February 2013
}}
</ref> Whealton's math, however, has been refuted by Woodward as demonstrating a fundamental misunderstanding of basic physics laws. For that matter Woodward built a simple experiment to demonstrate the flaw.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?action=dlattach;topic=13020.0;attach=119594
|publisher=NasaSpaceflight.com
|last=Woodward
|first=James F.
|title=Answer to ORNL
|accessdate=3 February 2013
}}
</ref>
 
==Related theories==
 
Woodward's hypothesis is related to [[Dennis William Sciama]]'s formulation of [[Mach's principle]] in which the fluctuations in mass are hypothesized to result from gravity/inertia radiation reactions based on [[Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory]], an interpretation of [[electrodynamics]] that starts from the idea that a solution to the electromagnetic field equations has to be symmetric with respect to time-inversion or [[T-symmetry]], as are the field equations themselves. Electromagnetic field equations include but are not limited to [[Maxwell's equations]] and [[Jefimenko's equations]].<ref>
{{cite journal
|author1=Sciama, D. W.
|title=On the Origin of Inertia|journal=Royal Astronomical Society
|volume=113
|page=34
|year=1953
|bibcode=1953MNRAS.113...34S
}}
</ref>
<ref>{{cite book
| author=Sciama, D. W.
| title=Modern Cosmology
| location=Cambridge
| publisher=Cambridge University Press
| year=1971
| id=OCLC 6931707
}}
</ref>
 
The Woodward effect is also related to the [[Nordtvedt effect]] that suggests that massive bodies should fall at different rates depending upon their gravitational [[self-energy]]. This would violate the [[strong equivalence principle]] that the laws of gravitation are independent of velocity and location, a principle considered fundamental by many theoretical physicists.<ref>[http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/~jbattat/apollo/docs/nordtvedtEffect.doc "Nordtvedt Effect Overview"] Harvard University. Retrieved 23 December 2008.</ref> Data collected by the [[Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment]]<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/williams_lw13.pdf
|format=PDF|title=Lunar Geophysics, Geodesy, and Dynamics
|author=Williams, James G.  and Dickey, Jean O.
|publisher=ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov
|accessdate=2008-05-04}} 13th International Workshop on Laser Ranging, October 7–11, 2002, Washington, D. C.</ref> and subsequent analysis has ruled out the Nordtvedt effect to high precision.<ref name="Adelberger, E.G., Heckel, B.R., Smith, G., Su, Y., and Swanson, H.E. 1990-Sep-20 261–263">{{Citation
| author =Adelberger, E.G., Heckel, B.R., Smith, G., Su, Y., and Swanson, H.E.
| title =Eötvös experiments, lunar ranging and the strong equivalence principle
| journal =Nature | volume =347 | pages =261–263 | year =1990-Sep-20
| url =http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v347/n6290/abs/347261a0.html|bibcode = 1990Natur.347..261A |doi = 10.1038/347261a0 | issue=6290}}</ref><ref name="Williams, J.G., Newhall, X.X., and Dickey, J.O. 1996 6730–6739">{{Citation
| author=Williams, J.G., Newhall, X.X., and Dickey, J.O.
| title =Relativity parameters determined from lunar laser ranging
| journal = Phys. Rev. D | volume =53 | pages =6730–6739 | year =1996
| url =http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v53/p6730_1
|bibcode = 1996PhRvD..53.6730W |doi = 10.1103/PhysRevD.53.6730
}}</ref>
 
==Quantum Mechanics==
 
In 2009, [[Harold Sonny White (NASA Scientist)|Harold "Sonny" White]] of [[NASA]] proposed the Quantum Vacuum Fluctuation (QVF) conjecture, a non-relativistic theory based on quantum mechanics to produce momentum fluxes even in empty [[outer space]].<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://coldfusionnow.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/White-Von_Braun_Symposium_2009-10-21_7b_White.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Revolutionary Propulsion & Power for the Next Century of Space Flight
|author=Harold (Sonny) White
|publisher=Von Braun Symposium
|date=October 2009}}</ref> Where Sciama's gravinertial field of [[Wheeler-Feynman absorber theory]] is used in the Woodward effect, the White conjecture replaces the Sciama gravinertial field with the [[QED vacuum|Quantum Electrodynamic Vacuum]] field. The local reactive forces are generated and conveyed by momentum fluxes created in the QED vacuum field by the same process used to create momentum fluxes in the gravinertial field.
In a subsequent analysis to high precision, the [[Nordtvedt effect]] has been ruled out using this approach.<ref name="Adelberger, E.G., Heckel, B.R., Smith, G., Su, Y., and Swanson, H.E. 1990-Sep-20 261–263"/><ref name="Williams, J.G., Newhall, X.X., and Dickey, J.O. 1996 6730–6739"/> However, White uses [[Magnetohydrodynamics|MHD]] [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] [[right-hand rule|rules]] to quantify this local momentum interaction where in comparison Woodward applies [[condensed matter physics]].<ref name="Sonny2011" />
 
Based on the White conjecture the proposed theoretical device is called a [[Quantum vacuum plasma thruster]] (QVPT) or Q-thruster. No experiments have been performed to date. Unlike a Mach effect thruster instantaneously exchanging momentum with the distant cosmic matter through the advanced/retarded waves ([[Wheeler-Feynman absorber theory]]) of the radiative gravinertial field, Sonny's "Q-thuster" would appear to violate momentum conservation, for the thrust would be produced by pushing off virtual "Q" particle/antiparticle pairs that would annihilate after they have been pushed on. However, it would not necessarily violate the law of conservation of energy, as it requires an electric current to function, much like any "standard" MHD thruster, and cannot produce more kinetic energy than its equivalent net energy input.
 
==Media reaction==
 
Woodward's claims in his papers and in space technology conference press releases of a potential breakthrough technology for spaceflight have generated interest in the popular press<ref name="cnet-news">{{cite web|url=http://news.cnet.com/Smokeless-rockets-launching-soon/2100-11397_3-6073392.html
|title=Smokeless rockets launching soon?
|publisher=CNET
|year=2006
|accessdate=3 February 2013
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-49797609.html
|title=Interstellar propulsion: the quest for empty space}}</ref>
and university news<ref name="csuf-news1">{{cite web|url=http://news.fullerton.edu/2013sp/Woodward-Book.asp
|title=Starships, Stargates, Wormholes and Interstellar Travel
|publisher=CSUF News
|date=19 February 2013
}}</ref><ref name="csuf-news2">{{cite web|url=http://news.fullerton.edu/2013sp/Woodward-Book-Excerpt.asp
|title=Faculty Author on the Science of Deep Space Travel
|publisher=CSUF News
|date=10 April 2013
}}</ref>
as well as the space news media.<ref name="io9-2013">
{{cite web
|url=http://io9.com/5972727/the-woodward-effect-allows-for-endless-supplies-of-starship-fuel
|author=Inglis-Arkell, Esther
|title=The Woodward Effect allows for endless supplies of starship fuel
|publisher=io9
|date=3 January 2013
|accessdate=6 March 2013
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.thespaceshow.com/detail.asp?q=689
|title=The Space Show: Dr. James Woodward
|publisher=thespaceshow.com
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.centauri-dreams.org/?p=796
|author=Gilster, Paul
|title=Gravity, Inertia, Exotica
|publisher=Tau Zero Foundation
|date=28 August 2006
|accessdate=25 February 2013
}}</ref>
Woodward also gave a video interview<ref name=aa_vimeo>{{Vimeo
|id=85105575
|title=Mach effect: warp drives and stargates by Jim Woodward}}</ref>
for the TV show [[Ancient Aliens]], season 6, episode 12.<ref name=hist_s6>{{cite web
|url=http://www.history.com/shows/ancient-aliens/episodes
|title=Ancient Aliens Episode Guide
|publisher=[[History (TV channel)|History channel]]
|accessdate=October 1, 2013}}</ref>
However doubters do exist<ref name="io9-2013" /> and the subject has been lampooned in a 2006 news comic strip.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://angryflower.com/experi.html
|date = 24 March 2006
|title=Bob the angry flower
|publisher=angryflower.com
}}</ref>
 
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
 
==Bibliography==
* Adelberger, E. G., Heckel, B. R., Smith, G., Su, Y., and Swanson, H. E. (1990-Sep-20). "Eötvös experiments, lunar ranging and the strong equivalence principle", Nature 347 (6290): 261–263, Bibcode 1990Natur.347..261A, doi:10.1038/347261a0
* Alcubierre, Miguel (1994). "The warp drive: hyper-fast travel within general relativity". Classical and Quantum Gravity 11 (5): L73–L77. arXiv:gr-qc/0009013. Bibcode 1994CQGra..11L..73A. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/11/5/001.
* Batttat, Norman (2004). "Nordtvedt Effect Overview" Harvard University. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
* Brito, Hector H.; Elaskar, Sergio A. (July 2003). "Direct Experimental Evidence of Electromagnetic Inertia Manipulation Thrusting". Joint Propulsion Conference Proceedings. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.2003-4989.
* Brito, Hector H. (April 2004). "Experimental status of thrusting by electromagnetic inertia manipulation". Acta Astronautica (International Academy of Astronautics) 54 (8): 547–558. doi:10.1016/S0094-5765(03)00225-X.
* Brito, Hector H.; Elaskar, Sergio A. (February 2005). "Overview of Theories and Experiments on Electromagnetic Inertia Manipulation Propulsion". AIP Conference Proceedings. 746. American Institute of Physics. pp. 1395–1402. doi:10.1063/1.1867270.
* Brito, Hector H.; Elaskar, Sergio A. (March–April 2007). "Direct Experimental Evidence of Electromagnetic Inertia Manipulation Thrusting". Journal of Propulsion and Power (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics) 23 (2): 487–494. doi:10.2514/1.18897.
* Buldrini, Nembo; Tajmar, Martin; Marhold, Klaus; Seifert, Bernhard (February 2006). "Experimental Study of the Machian Mass Fluctuation Effect Using a μN Thrust Balance". AIP Conference Proceedings. 813. American Institute of Physics. pp. 1313–1320. doi:10.1063/1.2169316.
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* Fearn, Heidi and Woodward, James F. (2012). "Recent Results of an Investigation of Mach Effect Thrusters". AIAA Journal JPC 2012 (48th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit and 10th International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Atlanta, Georgia). doi:10.2514/6.2012-3861.
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* Mahood, Thomas Louis (November 11, 1999). A torsion pendulum investigation of transient Machian effects (M.Sc. thesis). California State University, Fullerton.
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* March, Paul (February 2007). "Mach‐Lorentz Thruster Spacecraft Applications". AIP Conference Proceedings. 880. College Park, MD: American Institute of Physics. pp. 1063–1070. doi:10.1063/1.2437551.
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* Mills, Marc G. (August 1997). NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Workshop Proceedings. NASA. pp.&nbsp;367–374. Retrieved 1 February 2013.
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* Morris, Michael; Thorne, Kip; Yurtsever, Ulvi (1988). "Wormholes, Time Machines, and the Weak Energy Condition". Physical Review Letters 61 (13): 1446–1449. Bibcode 1988PhRvL..61.1446M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.61.1446. PMID 10038800.
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* Woodward, James F. (December 14, 2012). Making Starships and Stargates: The Science of Interstellar Transport and Absurdly Benign Wormholes. Space Exploration, Springer Praxis Books (2013 ed.). NYC: Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4614-5623-0.
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* "The Space Show: Dr. James Woodward". thespaceshow.com.
 
==Further reading==
* Sciama, D. W. (1971). [http://www.cambridge.org/fr/knowledge/isbn/item1130377/Modern%20Cosmology/ Modern Cosmology]. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 978-0521287210.
* Barbour, Julian; and Pfister, Herbert (eds.) (1995). [http://www.springer.com/birkhauser/physics/book/978-0-8176-3823-8 Mach's principle: from Newton's bucket to quantum gravity]. Boston: [[Birkhauser]]. ISBN 3-7643-3823-7. (Einstein studies, vol. 6)
* McEachern, Mary Margaret (2009).  [http://uncw.edu/phy/documents/McEachern_09.pdf From Here to Eternity and Back: Are Traversable Wormholes Possible? ]
* Rovelli, Carlo (2004). Quantum Gravity. Cambridge Press. ISBN ISBN 978-0521715966.
* Thorne, Kip S. (2012) Classical Black Holes: The Nonlinear Dynamics of Curved Spacetime. Science, 337 (6094). pp.&nbsp;536–538. ISSN 0036-8075
* Woodward, James F. (2012). [http://www.springer.com/engineering/mechanical+engineering/book/978-1-4614-5622-3 Making Starships and Stargates: The Science of Interstellar Transport and Absurdly Benign Wormholes]. [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer Praxis Books]]. ISBN 978-1461456223.
* [[LIGO]] http://www.ligo.org/science.php
 
{{Spacecraft propulsion}}
 
[[Category:Spacecraft propulsion]]
[[Category:Hypothetical technology]]
[[Category:Gravitation]]

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