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| The [[Lorentz transformation]]s relate the space-time coordinates, (which specify the position ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' and time ''t'' of an event) relative to a particular inertial frame of reference (the "rest system"), and the coordinates of the same event relative to another coordinate system moving in the positive ''x''-direction at a constant speed ''v'', relative to the rest system. It was devised as a theoretical transformation which makes the velocity of light invariant between different inertial frames. The coordinates of the event in this "moving system" are denoted ''x''′, ''y''′, ''z''′ and ''t''′. The rest system was sometimes identified with the [[luminiferous aether]], the postulated medium for the propagation of light, and the moving system was commonly identified with the earth as it moved through this medium. Early approximations of the transformation were published by [[Woldemar Voigt|Voigt]] (1887) and [[Hendrik Lorentz|Lorentz]] (1895). They were completed by [[Joseph Larmor|Larmor]] (1897, 1900) and Lorentz (1899, 1904) and were brought into their modern form by [[Henri Poincaré|Poincaré]] (1905), who gave the transformation the name of Lorentz. Eventually, [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] (1905) showed in his development of [[special relativity]] that the transformations follow from the [[principle of relativity]] and the constant light speed alone, without requiring a mechanical aether, and are changing the traditional concepts of space and time. Subsequently, [[Hermann Minkowski|Minkowski]] used them to argue that space and time are inseparably connected as [[spacetime]].
| | Emilia Shryock is my title but you can call me something you like. He used to be unemployed but now he is a meter reader. Doing ceramics is what my family members and I appreciate. Years in the past we moved to North Dakota.<br><br>My site - home std test ([http://facehack.ir/index.php?do=/blog/20/what-you-have-to-do-facing-candida/ click through the next web page]) |
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| In this article the historical notations are replaced with modern notations, where
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| :<math>\gamma =\frac1{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}</math>
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| is the [[Lorentz factor]], ''v'' is the relative velocity of the two reference frames, and ''c'' is the [[speed of light]]. | |
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| == Voigt (1887) ==
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| [[Woldemar Voigt]] (1887)<ref name=voigt group=A /> developed a transformation in connection with the [[Doppler effect]] and an incompressible medium, being in modern notation:<ref>Miller (1981), 114–115</ref><ref name=pais>Pais (1982), Kap. 6b</ref>
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| :<math>x^{\prime}=x-vt,\quad y^{\prime}=\frac{y}{\gamma},\quad z^{\prime}=\frac{z}{\gamma},\quad t^{\prime}=t-x\frac{v}{c^{2}}</math>.
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| If the right-hand sides of his equations are multiplied by <math>\gamma</math> they are the modern [[Lorentz transformation]]. In Voigt's theory the speed of light is invariant, but his transformations mix up a relativistic boost together with a rescaling of space-time. Maxwell's electrodynamics is [[Scale invariance|scale]], [[Conformal map|conformal]], and [[Lorentz covariance|Lorentz invariant]], so the combination is invariant too. But scale transformations are not a symmetry of all the laws of nature, only of electromagnetism, so these transformations cannot be used to formulate a [[principle of relativity]] in general. Lorentz acknowledged Voigt's work in 1909 by saying:
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| {{Cquote|In a paper "Über das Doppler'sche Princip", published in 1887 ... and which to my regret has escaped my notice all these years, Voigt has applied to equations of the form (6) ... a transformation equivalent to the formulae (287) and (288). The idea of the transformations used above ... might therefore have been borrowed from Voigt and the proof that it does not alter the form of the equations for the free ether is contained in his paper.<ref name=lorentz6 group=A />}}
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| Also [[Hermann Minkowski]] said in 1908 that the transformations which play the main role in the principle of relativity were first examined by Voigt in 1887. Voigt responded in the same paper by saying, that his theory was based on an elastic theory of light, not an electromagnetic one. However, he concluded that some results were actually the same.<ref name=bucherer group=A />
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| ==Heaviside (1888), Thomson (1889), Searle (1896)==
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| In 1888, [[Oliver Heaviside]]<ref name=Heav group=A /> investigated the properties of charges in motion according to Maxwell's electrodynamics. He calculated, among other things, anisotropies in the electric field of moving bodies represented by this formula:<ref>Brown (2003)</ref>
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| :<math>\mathrm{E}=\left(\frac{q\mathrm{r}}{r^{2}}\right)\left(1-\frac{v^{2}\sin^{2}\theta}{c^{2}}\right)^{-3/2}</math>.
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| Consequently, [[Joseph John Thomson]] (1889)<ref name=Thomson group=A /> found a way to substantially simplify calculations concerning moving charges by using the following mathematical transformation:
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| :<math>x^{\prime}=\gamma x</math>.
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| Thereby, [[inhomogeneous electromagnetic wave equation]]s are transformed into a [[Poisson equation]].<ref name=mil>Miller (1981), 98-99</ref>
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| Eventually, [[George Frederick Charles Searle]]<ref name=Searle group=A /> noted in (1896) that Heaviside's expression leads to a deformation of electric fields which he called "Heaviside-Ellipsoid" of [[axial ratio]] <math>1/\gamma:1:1\!</math>.<ref name=mil />
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| == Lorentz (1892, 1895) ==
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| In order to explain the [[aberration of light]] and the result of the [[Fizeau experiment]] in accordance with [[Maxwell's equations]], Lorentz in 1892 developed a model ("[[Lorentz ether theory]]")<ref name=lorentz1 group=A /> in which the aether is completely motionless, and the speed of light in the aether is constant in all directions. In order to calculate the optics of moving bodies, Lorentz introduced the following quantities to transform from the aether system into a moving system (it's unknown whether he was influenced by Voigt, Heaviside, and Thomson).<ref>Miller (1982), 1.4 & 1.5</ref>
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| :<math>x^{\prime}=\gamma x^{*},\quad y^{\prime}=y,\quad z^{\prime}=z,\quad t^{\prime}=t-\gamma^{2} x^{*}\frac{v}{c^{2}}</math>
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| where ''x<sup>*</sup>'' is the [[Galilean transformation]] ''x-vt''. While t is the "true" time for observers resting in the aether, t' is an auxiliary variable only for calculating processes for moving systems. It is also important that Lorentz and later also Larmor formulated this transformation in 2 steps. At first the Galilean transformation - and later the expansion into the "fictitious" electromagnetic system with the aid of the Lorentz transformation. In order to explain the negative result of the [[Michelson–Morley experiment]], he (1892b)<ref name=lorentz2 group=A /> introduced the additional hypothesis that also intermolecular forces are affected in a similar way and introduced [[length contraction]] in his theory (without proof as he admitted). The same hypothesis was already made by [[George FitzGerald]] in 1889 based on Heaviside's work. While length contraction was a real physical effect for Lorentz, he considered the time transformation only as a heuristic working hypothesis and a mathematical stipulation.
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| In 1895,<ref name=lorentz3 group=A /> Lorentz further elaborated on his theory and introduced the "theorem of corresponding states". This theorem states that a moving observer (relative to the ether) in his „fictitious“ field makes the same observations as a resting observers in his „real“ field for velocities to first order in v/c. Lorentz showed that the dimensions of electrostatic systems in the ether and a moving frame are connected by this transformation:
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| :<math>x^{\prime}=\gamma x^{*},\quad y^{\prime}=y,\quad z^{\prime}=z,\quad t^{\prime}=t</math>
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| For solving optical problems Lorentz used the following transformation, whereby for the time variable he used the expression "local time" (Ortszeit):
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| :<math>x^{\prime}=x^{*},\quad y^{\prime}=y,\quad z^{\prime}=z,\quad t^{\prime}=t-x^{*}\frac{v}{c^{2}}</math>
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| With this concept Lorentz could explain the [[Doppler effect]], the [[aberration of light]], and the [[Fizeau experiment]].<ref>Janssen (1995), 3.1</ref>
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| == Larmor (1897, 1900) ==
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| Larmor in 1897<ref name=larmor1 group=A /> and 1900<ref name=larmor2 group=A /> presented the transformations in two parts. Similar to Lorentz, he considered first the transformation from a rest system (''x'', ''y'', ''z'', ''t'') to a moving system (''x''′, ''y''′, ''z''′, ''t''′)
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| : <math>x'=x-vt,\quad y'=y',\quad z'=z,\quad t'=t-\gamma^{2}vx^{*}/c^{2}</math>
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| This transformation is just the Galilean transformation for the ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' coordinates but contains Lorentz’s "local time". Larmor knew that the [[Michelson–Morley experiment]] was accurate enough to detect an effect of motion depending on the factor ''v''²/''c''², and so he sought the transformations which were "accurate to second order" (as he put it). Thus he wrote the final transformations (where ''x''* = ''x'' − ''vt'') as:
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| : <math>x^{\prime}=\gamma x^{*},\quad y^{\prime}=y,\quad z^{\prime}=z,\quad t^{\prime}=\frac{t}{\gamma}-\gamma x^{*}\frac{v}{c^{2}}</math>
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| Larmor showed that Maxwell's equations were invariant under this two-step transformation, "to second order in ''v''/''c''", as he put it. Larmor noted that if it is assumed that the constitution of molecules is electrical then the Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction is a consequence of this transformation. It's notable that Larmor was the first who recognized that some sort of [[time dilation]] is a consequence of this transformation as well, because individual electrons describe corresponding parts of their orbits in times shorter for the [rest] system in the ratio 1/γ.<ref>Darrigol (2000), Chap. 8.5</ref><ref>Macrossan (1986)</ref>
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| == Lorentz (1899, 1904) ==
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| Also Lorentz, by extending his theorem of corresponding states, derived in 1899 the complete transformations. However, he used the undetermined factor ''l'' as an arbitrary function of ''v''. Like Larmor, in 1899<ref name=lorentz4 group=A /> also Lorentz noticed some sort of time dilation effect, and he wrote that for the frequency of oscillating electrons "''that in S the time of vibrations be ''kl'' times as great as in S<sub>0</sub>''", where ''S''<sub>0</sub> is the ether frame,<ref>Jannsen (1995), Kap. 3.3</ref>
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| :<math>k=\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2},</math>
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| and ''l'' is an undetermined factor. This factor was set to unity by him in 1904,<ref name=lorentz5 group=A /> so Lorentz's equations now assumed the same form as Larmor's (as mentioned above ''x''* must be replaced by ''x'' − ''vt''):
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| : <math>x^{\prime}=\gamma lx^{*},\quad y^{\prime}=ly,\quad z^{\prime}=lz,\quad t^{\prime}=\frac{l}{\gamma}t-\gamma lx^{*}\frac{v}{c^{2}}</math>
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| In connection with this he also derived the correct formulas for the velocity dependence of mass. He concluded, that this transformation must apply to all forces of nature, not only electrical ones and therefore length contraction is a consequence of this transformation.
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| == Poincaré (1900, 1905) ==
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| === Local time ===
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| Neither Lorentz or Larmor gave a clear physical interpretation of the origin of local time. However, [[Henri Poincaré]]<ref name=poinc1 group=A /><ref name=poinc2 group=A /> in 1900 commented on the origin of Lorentz’s “wonderful invention” of local time.<ref>Darrigol (2005), Kap. 4</ref>
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| He remarked that it arose when clocks in a moving reference frame are synchronised by exchanging signals which are assumed to travel with the same speed ''c'' in both directions, which lead to what is nowadays called [[relativity of simultaneity]], although Poincaré's calculation does not involve length contraction or time dilation. In order to synchronise the clocks here on Earth (the ''x''*, ''t''* frame) a light signal from one clock (at the origin) is sent to another (at ''x''*), and is sent back. It's supposed that the Earth is moving with speed ''v'' in the ''x''-direction (= ''x''*-direction) in some rest system (''x'',''t'') (''i.e.'' the [[luminiferous aether]] system for Lorentz and Larmor). The time of flight outwards is
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| :<math> \delta t_o = \frac{x^*}{\left(c - v\right)}</math>
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| and the time of flight back is
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| :<math>\delta t_b = \frac{x^*}{\left(c + v\right)}\cdot</math>
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| The elapsed time on the clock when the signal is returned is δ''t<sub>o</sub>'' + δ''t<sub>b</sub>'' and the time ''t''* = (δ''t<sub>o</sub>'' + δ''t<sub>b</sub>'')/2 is ascribed to the moment when the light signal reached the distant clock. In the rest frame the time ''t'' = δ''t<sub>o</sub>'' is ascribed to that same instant. Some algebra gives the relation between the different time coordinates ascribed to the moment of reflection. Thus
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| :<math>t^* = t - \frac{\epsilon vx^*}{c^2}\cdot</math>
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| Poincaré gave the result ''t''* = ''t'' − ''vx''*/''c''<sup>2</sup>, which is the form used by Lorentz in 1895. Poincaré dropped the factor ε ≅ 1 under the assumption that
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| :<math>\frac{v^2}{c^2}\ll1.\,</math>
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| Similar physical interpretations of local time were later given by [[Emil Cohn]] (1904)<ref name=cohn group=A /> and [[Max Abraham]] (1905).<ref name=abraham group=A />
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| === Lorentz transformation ===
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| On June 5, 1905 (published June 9)<ref name=poinc3 group=A /> Poincaré simplified the equations (which are algebraically equivalent to those of Larmor and Lorentz) and gave them the modern form (Poincaré set the speed of light to unity):<ref>Pais (1982), Chap. 6c</ref><ref>Katzir (2005), 280–288</ref>
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| :<math>x^{\prime}=\gamma(x-vt),\quad y^{\prime}=y,\quad z^{\prime}=z,\quad t^{\prime}=\gamma\left(t-vx\right)</math>
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| Apparently Poincaré was unaware of Larmor's contributions, because he only mentioned Lorentz and therefore used for the first time the name "Lorentz transformation". He pointed out the group characteristics of the transformation, and modified/corrected Lorentz's derivation of the equations of electrodynamics in some details in order to fully satisfy the principle of relativity, ''i.e.'' making them fully Lorentz covariant.<ref>Miller (1981), Chap. 1.14</ref>
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| In July 1905 (published in January 1906)<ref name=poinc4 group=A /> Poincaré showed in detail how the transformations and electrodynamic equations are a consequence of the [[principle of least action]]; he demonstrated in more detail the group characteristics of the transformation, which he called [[Lorentz group]], and he showed that the combination ''x''<sup>2</sup> + ''y''<sup>2</sup> + ''z''<sup>2</sup> − ''c''<sup>2</sup>''t''<sup>2</sup> is invariant. He noticed that the Lorentz transformation is merely a rotation in four-dimensional space about the origin by introducing ''ct''√<span style="text-decoration: overline">−1</span> as a fourth imaginary coordinate, and he used an early form of [[four-vector]]s.
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| == Einstein (1905) ==
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| On June 30, 1905 (published September 1905) Einstein<ref name=einstein group=A /> published what is now called [[special relativity]] and gave a new derivation of the transformation, which was based only on the principle on relativity and the principle of the constancy of the speed of light. While Lorentz considered "local time" to be a mathematical stipulation device for explaining the Michelson-Morley experiment, Einstein showed that the coordinates given by the Lorentz transformation were in fact the inertial coordinates of relatively moving frames of reference. For quantities of first order in v/c this was also done by Poincaré in 1900, while Einstein derived the complete transformation by this method. Unlike Lorentz and Poincaré who still distinguished between real time in the aether and apparent time for moving observers, Einstein showed that the transformations concern the nature of space and time.<ref>Miller (1981), Chap. 6</ref><ref>Pais (1982), Kap. 7</ref><ref>Darrigol (2005), Chap. 6</ref>
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| The notation for this transformation is identical to Poincaré's of 1905, except that Einstein didn't set the speed of light to unity:
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| :<math>x^{\prime}=\gamma(x-vt),\quad y^{\prime}=y,\quad z^{\prime}=z,\quad t^{\prime}=\gamma\left(t-x\frac{v}{c^{2}}\right)</math>
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| ==Minkowski (1907–1908)==
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| The work on the principle of relativity by Lorentz, Einstein, [[Max Planck]], together with Poincaré's four-dimensional approach, were further elaborated by [[Hermann Minkowski]] in 1907 and 1908. Minkowski particularly reformulated electrodynamics in a four-dimensional way ([[Minkowski spacetime]]) and gave a geometric representation of the Lorentz transformation by using [[Minkowski diagram]]s.<ref name=mink1 group=A /><ref name=mink2 group=A /><ref name=mink3 group=A /><ref>Walter (1999)</ref>
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| [[File:Minkowski1.png|center|thumb|400px|Original spacetime diagram by Minkowski in 1908.]]
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| == See also ==
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| :[[Lorentz ether theory]]
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| :[[History of special relativity]]
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| == References ==
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| ;Primary sources
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| |pages=129–176
| |
| |doi=10.1007/BF03013466}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| <ref name=Searle>{{Citation
| |
| |author=Searle, George Frederick Charles
| |
| |year=1897
| |
| |title=[[s:On the Steady Motion of an Electrified Ellipsoid|On the Steady Motion of an Electrified Ellipsoid]]
| |
| |journal=Philosophical Magazine
| |
| |series=5
| |
| |volume=44
| |
| |issue=269
| |
| |pages=329–341}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| <ref name=Thomson>{{Citation
| |
| |author=Thomson, Joseph John
| |
| |year=1889
| |
| |title=[[s:On the Magnetic Effects produced by Motion in the Electric Field|On the Magnetic Effects produced by Motion in the Electric Field]]
| |
| |journal=Philosophical Magazine
| |
| |volume=28
| |
| |series=5
| |
| |issue=170
| |
| |pages=1–14}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| <ref name=voigt>{{Citation
| |
| |author=Voigt, Woldemar
| |
| |year=1887
| |
| |title=[[s:de:Ueber das Doppler’sche Princip|Ueber das Doppler’sche Princip]]
| |
| |trans_title=[[s:Translation:On the Principle of Doppler|On the Principle of Doppler]]
| |
| |journal=Nachrichten von der Königl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften und der Georg-Augusts-Universität zu Göttingen
| |
| |issue=2
| |
| |pages=41–51}}</ref>
| |
| </references>
| |
| | |
| ;Secondary sources
| |
| {{reflist|3}}
| |
| | |
| ==Further reading==
| |
| *{{Citation
| |
| |author=Brown, Harvey R.
| |
| |title= The origins of length contraction: I. The FitzGerald-Lorentz deformation hypothesis
| |
| |journal=American Journal of Physics
| |
| |year=2001
| |
| |volume=69
| |
| |issue=10
| |
| |pages=1044–1054
| |
| |url=http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00000218/
| |
| |doi=10.1119/1.1379733|arxiv = gr-qc/0104032 |bibcode = 2001AmJPh..69.1044B}} See also "Michelson, FitzGerald and Lorentz: the origins of relativity revisited", [http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/987/ Online].
| |
| | |
| *{{Citation
| |
| |author=Darrigol, Olivier
| |
| |year=2000
| |
| |title=Electrodynamics from Ampère to Einstein
| |
| |isbn=0-19-850594-9
| |
| |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press
| |
| |location=Oxford}}
| |
| | |
| *{{Citation
| |
| |author=Darrigol, Olivier
| |
| |title=The Genesis of the theory of relativity
| |
| |year=2005
| |
| |journal=Séminaire Poincaré
| |
| |volume=1
| |
| |pages=1–22
| |
| |url=http://www.bourbaphy.fr/darrigol2.pdf}}
| |
| | |
| *{{Citation
| |
| |author=Janssen, Michel
| |
| |year=1995
| |
| |title=A Comparison between Lorentz's Ether Theory and Special Relativity in the Light of the Experiments of Trouton and Noble (Thesis)
| |
| |url=http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/litserv/diss/janssen_diss/}}
| |
| | |
| *{{Citation
| |
| |author=Katzir, Shaul
| |
| |year=2005
| |
| |journal=Physics in perspective
| |
| |title=Poincaré’s Relativistic Physics: Its Origins and Nature
| |
| |pages=268–292
| |
| |volume=7
| |
| |doi=10.1007/s00016-004-0234-y
| |
| |issue=3|bibcode = 2005PhP.....7..268K }}
| |
| | |
| *{{Citation
| |
| |author=Macrossan, M. N.
| |
| |year=1986
| |
| |journal=The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science
| |
| |title=A Note on Relativity Before Einstein
| |
| |pages=232–234
| |
| |volume=37
| |
| |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:9560}}
| |
| | |
| *{{Citation
| |
| |author=Miller, Arthur I.
| |
| |year=1981
| |
| |title=Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911)
| |
| |place=Reading
| |
| |publisher=Addison–Wesley
| |
| |isbn=0-201-04679-2}}
| |
| | |
| *{{Citation
| |
| |author=Pais, Abraham
| |
| |year=1982
| |
| |title= Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein
| |
| |place = New York
| |
| |publisher=Oxford University Press
| |
| |isbn=0-19-520438-7}}
| |
| | |
| *{{Citation
| |
| |author=Walter, Scott
| |
| |year=1999a
| |
| |editor=H. Goenner, J. Renn, J. Ritter, and T. Sauer
| |
| |contribution= Minkowski, mathematicians, and the mathematical theory of relativity
| |
| |title=Einstein Studies
| |
| |volume=7
| |
| |pages=45–86
| |
| |publisher=Birkhäuser
| |
| |contribution-url=http://www.univ-nancy2.fr/DepPhilo/walter/papers/mmm.xml}}
| |
| | |
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Lorentz transformations}}
| |
| [[Category:Equations]]
| |
| [[Category:History of ideas]]
| |
| [[Category:History of physics]]
| |