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{{Infobox writing system
|name=Greek alphabet
|type=[[Alphabet]]
|languages=[[Greek language|Greek]]
|time=~800 BC to the present{{sfn|Swiggers|1996|p=}}
|fam1=[[Proto-Sinaitic alphabet]]
|fam2=[[Phoenician alphabet]]
|children=[[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]]<br />[[Glagolitic alphabet|Glagolitic]]<br />[[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]]<br />[[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]]<br />[[Armenian alphabet|Armenian]]<br />[[Old Italic script|Old Italic]]<br />[[Latin alphabet|Latin]]
|unicode=[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0370.pdf U+0370–U+03FF] Greek&nbsp;and&nbsp;Coptic, <br />[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1F00.pdf U+1F00–U+1FFF] Greek&nbsp;Extended
|iso15924=Grek
|sample=Greekalphabet.svg
|imagesize=250px
|note = none
}}
The '''Greek alphabet''' is the script that has been used to write the [[Greek language]] since the 8th century BC.{{sfn|Cook|1987|p=9}} It was derived from the earlier [[Phoenician alphabet]], and was in turn the ancestor of numerous other European and Middle Eastern scripts, including [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] and [[Latin script|Latin]].{{sfn|Coulmas|1996|p=}} Apart from its use in writing the Greek language, both in its ancient and its modern forms, the Greek alphabet today also serves as a source of [[Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering|technical symbols and labels]] in many domains of mathematics, science and other fields.
 
In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 24 letters, ordered from [[alpha]] to [[omega]]. Like Latin and Cyrillic, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter; it developed the [[letter case]] distinction between upper-case and lower-case forms in parallel with Latin during the modern era.
 
Sound values and conventional transcriptions for some of the letters differ between [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Modern Greek]] usage, owing to phonological changes in the language.
 
In traditional ("polytonic") Greek orthography, vowel letters can be combined with several [[Greek diacritics|diacritics]], including accent marks, so-called "breathing" marks, and the [[iota subscript]]. In common present-day usage for Modern Greek since the 1980s, this system has been simplified to a so-called "monotonic" convention.
{{col-begin|width=auto}}
{{col-break}}
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left;"
|-
!rowspan="2"|Letter
!rowspan="2"|Name
!colspan="2"|Sound value
|-
!Ancient<ref name="woodard_2008_15">{{harvnb|Woodard|2008|pp=15–17}}</ref>
!Modern<ref name="holton_1998_31">{{harvnb|Holton|Mackridge|Philippaki-Warburton|1998|p=31}}</ref>
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Α α
|[[alpha]]
|{{IPAblink|a}} {{IPAblink|aː}}
|{{IPAblink|a}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Β β
|[[beta]]
|{{IPAblink|b}}
|{{IPAblink|v}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Γ γ
|[[gamma]]
|{{IPAblink|ɡ}}
|{{IPAblink|ɣ}} ~ {{IPAblink|ʝ}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Δ δ
|[[delta (letter)|delta]]
|{{IPAblink|d}}
|{{IPAblink|ð}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Ε ε
|[[epsilon]]
|{{IPAblink|e}}
|{{IPAblink|e}}
|- Voiced alveolar affricate
|style="font-size:120%;"| Ζ ζ
|[[zeta]]
|{{IPA|[zd]}} (or {{IPAblink|dz}}<ref name="hinge">{{harvnb|Hinge|2001|pp=212–234}}</ref>)
|{{IPAblink|z}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Η η
|[[eta]]
|{{IPAblink|ɛː}}
|{{IPAblink|i}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Θ θ
|[[theta]]
|{{IPAblink|tʰ}}
|{{IPAblink|θ}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Ι ι
|[[iota]]
|{{IPAblink|i}} {{IPAblink|iː}}
|{{IPAblink|i}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Κ κ
|[[kappa]]
|{{IPAblink|k}}
|{{IPAblink|k}} ~ {{IPAblink|c}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Λ λ
|[[lambda]]
|{{IPAblink|l}}
|{{IPAblink|l}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Μ μ
|[[mu (letter)|mu]]
|{{IPAblink|m}}
|{{IPAblink|m}}
|-
|}
{{col-break}}
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left;"
|-
!rowspan="2"|Letter
!rowspan="2"|Name
!colspan="2"|Sound value
|-
!Ancient
!Modern
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Ν ν
|[[nu (letter)|nu]]
|{{IPAblink|n}}
|{{IPAblink|n}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Ξ ξ
|[[xi (letter)|xi]]
|{{IPA|[ks]}}
|{{IPA|[ks]}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Ο ο
|[[omicron]]
|{{IPAblink|o}}
|{{IPAblink|o}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Π π
|[[pi (letter)|pi]]
|{{IPAblink|p}}
|{{IPAblink|p}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Ρ ρ
|[[rho]]
|{{IPAblink|r}}
|{{IPAblink|r}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Σ σς<ref name="nicholas_finalsigma">The letter [[sigma]] {{angle bracket|Σ}} has two different lowercase forms, {{angle bracket|σ}} and {{angle bracket|ς}}, with {{angle bracket|ς}} being used in word-final position and {{angle bracket|σ}} elsewhere. (In some 19th-century typesetting, {{angle bracket|ς}} was also used word-medially at the end of a [[compound (linguistics)|compound]] morpheme, e.g. "δυςκατανοήτων", marking the morpheme boundary between "δυς-κατανοήτων" ('difficult to understand'); modern standard practice is to spell "δυσκατανοήτων" with a non-final sigma.) {{cite web|first=Nick|last=Nicholas|year=2004|title=Sigma: final versus non-final|url=http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/dist/sigma.html|accessdate=2012-07-15}}</ref>
|[[sigma]]
|{{IPAblink|s}}
|{{IPAblink|s}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Τ τ
|[[tau]]
|{{IPAblink|t}}
|{{IPAblink|t}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Υ υ
|[[upsilon]]
|{{IPAblink|y}} {{IPAblink|yː}}
|{{IPAblink|i}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Φ φ
|[[phi]]
|{{IPAblink|pʰ}}
|{{IPAblink|f}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Χ χ
|[[chi (letter)|chi]]
|{{IPAblink|kʰ}}
|{{IPAblink|x}} ~ {{IPAblink|ç}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Ψ ψ
|[[psi (letter)|psi]]
|{{IPA|[ps]}}
|{{IPA|[ps]}}
|-
|style="font-size:120%;"| Ω ω
|[[omega]]
|{{IPAblink|ɔː}}
|{{IPAblink|o}}
|}
{{col-end}}
 
== Letters ==
 
=== Sound values ===
{{main|Greek orthography}}
Both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic. For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages.<ref name="horrocks_231">{{harvnb|Horrocks|2008|pp=231–250}}</ref>
 
Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants (/b, d, g/) and aspirated plosives (/pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/) in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"|&nbsp;
!colspan="3"|Former voiced plosives
!colspan="3"|Former aspirates
|-
!Letter
!Ancient
!Modern
!Letter
!Ancient
!Modern
|-
|Labial
|Β β
|{{IPAslink|b}}
|{{IPAslink|v}}
|Φ φ
|{{IPAslink|pʰ}}
|{{IPAslink|f}}
|-
|Dental
|Δ δ
|{{IPAslink|d}}
|{{IPAslink|ð}}
|Θ θ
|{{IPAslink|tʰ}}
|{{IPAslink|θ}}
|-
|Coronal
|Γ γ
|{{IPAslink|ɡ}}
|{{IPAblink|ɣ}} ~ {{IPAblink|j}}
|Χ χ
|{{IPAslink|kʰ}}
|{{IPAblink|x}} ~ {{IPAblink|ç}}
|-
|}
 
Among the vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the fact that the vowel system of post-classical Greek was radically simplified, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from the pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable.
 
The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers:
{|class="wikitable"
!letter!!ancient!!modern!!letter!!ancient!!modern
|-
| Η η || {{IPAlink|ɛː}} ||rowspan="5"| > {{IPAlink|i}} || Ω ω || {{IPAlink|ɔː}} ||rowspan="2"| > {{IPAlink|o}}
|-
| Ι ι || {{IPAlink|i}}({{IPA|ː}}) || Ο ο || {{IPAlink|o}}
|-
| ΕΙ ει || {{IPA|ei}} || Ε ε || {{IPAlink|e}} ||rowspan="2"| > {{IPAlink|e}}
|-
| Υ υ || {{IPAlink|u}}({{IPA|ː}}) > {{IPAlink|y}} || AΙ αι || {{IPA|ai}}
|-
| ΟΙ οι || {{IPA|oi}} > {{IPAlink|y}} ||colspan="3"|&nbsp;
|}
 
Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern, sound-symbol mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of [[Pronunciation of Ancient Greek in teaching|conventional approximations]] of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek.
 
=== Digraphs and letter combinations ===
Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s of vowel letters that formerly represented [[diphthong]]s but are now monophthongized. In addition to the three mentioned above ({{angle bracket|ει, αι, οι}}) there is also {{angle bracket|ου}} = /u/. The Ancient Greek diphthongs {{angle bracket|ευ}} and {{angle bracket|αυ}} are pronounced [ev] and [av] respectively in Modern Greek ([ef, af] in devoicing environments). The Modern Greek consonant combinations {{angle bracket|μπ}} and {{angle bracket|ντ}} stand for [b] and [d] (or [mb] and [nd]) respectively; {{angle bracket|τζ}} stands for [dz]. In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter {{angle bracket|γ}}, before another [[velar consonant]], stands for the [[velar nasal]] [ŋ]; thus {{angle bracket|γγ}} and {{angle bracket|γκ}} are pronounced like English {{angle bracket|ng}}.
 
=== Diacritics ===
{{main|Greek diacritics}}
 
In the [[polytonic orthography]] traditionally used for ancient Greek, the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the [[acute accent]] ({{Big|{{lang|grc|ά}}}}), the [[grave accent]] ({{Big|{{lang|grc|ὰ}}}}), or the [[circumflex accent]] ({{Big|{{lang|grc|α̃ }}}} or {{big|{{lang|grc|α̑}}}}). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological [[pitch accent]] in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single [[Stress (linguistics)|stress accent]], and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called "breathing marks": the [[Spiritus asper|rough breathing]] ({{Big|{{lang|grc|ἁ}}}}), marking an {{IPA|/h/}} sound at the beginning of a word, or the [[Spiritus lenis|smooth breathing]] ({{Big|{{lang|grc|ἀ}}}}), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position.
 
The vowel letters {{angle bracket|α, η, ω}} carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the so-called [[iota subscript]], which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature {{angle bracket|ι}} below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, {{angle bracket|ᾱι, ηι, ωι}} (i.e. /aːi, ɛːi, ɔːi/), which became monophthongized during antiquity.
 
Another diacritic used in Greek is the [[Double dot (diacritic)|diaeresis]] ({{big|{{lang|grc|¨}}}}), indicating a [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]].
 
In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic", was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as ''tonos'', i.e. simply "accent"), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters. The polytonic system is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek.
 
=== Romanization ===
{{main|Romanization of Greek}}
There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script. The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, {{angle bracket|κ}} is replaced with {{angle bracket|c}}, the diphthongs {{angle bracket|αι}} and {{angle bracket|οι}} are rendered as {{angle bracket|ae}} and {{angle bracket|oe}} (or {{angle bracket|æ,œ}}) respectively; and {{angle bracket|ει}} and {{angle bracket|ου}} are simplified to {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}} respectively. In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, {{angle bracket|κ}} will instead be rendered as {{angle bracket|k}}, and the vowel combinations {{angle bracket|αι, οι, ει, ου}} as {{angle bracket|ai, oi, ei, ou}} respectively. The letters {{angle bracket|θ}} and {{angle bracket|φ}} are generally rendered as {{angle bracket|th}} and {{angle bracket|ph}}; {{angle bracket|χ}} as either {{angle bracket|ch}} or {{angle bracket|kh}}; and word-initial {{angle bracket|ρ}} as {{angle bracket|rh}}.
 
For Modern Greek, there are multiple different transcription conventions. They differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to the conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter [[transliteration]] or rather a phonetically based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (as [[ISO 843]]),<ref>{{cite web|title=ISO 843:1997 (Conversion of Greek characters into Latin characters)|author=ISO|authorlink=International Organization for Standardization|year=2010}}</ref> by the [[United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Greek|url=http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom1_el.htm|author=UNGEGN Working Group on Romanization Systems|accessdate=2012-07-15|year=2003}}</ref> by the [[ALA-LC romanization|Library of Congress]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Greek (ALA-LC Romanization Tables)|year=2010}}</ref> and others.
 
== History ==
{{Main|History of the Greek alphabet}}
 
=== Origins ===
[[Image:Dipylon Inscription.JPG|thumb|[[Dipylon inscription]], one of the oldest known samples of the use of the Greek alphabet, ca. 740&nbsp;BC]]
 
The Greek alphabet emerged in the late 9th century BC or early 8th century BC{{sfn|Johnston|2003|p=}} Another, unrelated writing system, [[Linear B]], had been in use to write the Greek language during the earlier [[Mycenean Greece|Mycenean]] period, but the two systems are separated from each other by a hiatus of several centuries, the so-called [[Greek Dark Ages]]. The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier [[Phoenician alphabet]], a member of the family of closely related [[Abjad|West Semitic scripts]]. The most notable change made in adapting the Phoenician system to Greek was the introduction of vowel letters. According to a definition used by some modern authors, this feature makes Greek the first "alphabet" in the narrow sense,{{sfn|Coulmas|1996|p=}} as distinguished from the purely consonantal alphabets of the Semitic type, which according to this terminology are called "abjads".{{sfn|Daniels|Bright|1996|p=4}}
 
Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five of them were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants {{IPA|/j/}} (''[[yodh]]'') and {{IPA|/w/}} (''[[waw (letter)|waw]]'') were used for [i] (Ι, ''[[iota]]'') and [u] (Υ, ''[[upsilon]]'') respectively; the [[glottal stop]] consonant {{IPA|/ʔ/}} (''[[aleph|'aleph]]'') was used for [a] (Α, ''[[alpha]]''); the [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] {{IPA|/ʕ/}} (''[[Ayin|{{unicode|ʿayin}}]]'') was turned into [o] (Ο, ''[[omicron]]''); and the letter for {{IPA|/h/}} (''[[he (letter)|he]]'') was turned into [e] (Ε, ''[[epsilon]]''). A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (Ϝ, [[digamma]]). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal {{IPA|/ħ/}} (''[[heth]]'') was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (Η, [[heta]]) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long {{IPA|/ɛː/}} (Η, [[eta]]) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventh vowel letter for the long {{IPA|/ɔː/}} (Ω, [[omega]]) was introduced.
 
Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ (''[[Phi (letter)|phi]]'') for {{IPA|/pʰ/}}, Χ (''[[Chi (letter)|chi]]'') for {{IPA|/kʰ/}} and Ψ (''[[Psi (letter)|psi]]'') for {{IPA|/ps/}}. In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for {{IPA|/ks/}} and Ψ for {{IPA|/kʰ/}} The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate.
 
<div style="float:none;">
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Phoenician
!colspan="4"|Greek
|-
|[[File:Phoenician aleph.svg|x12px]]
|[[aleph (letter)|aleph]]
|{{IPAslink|ʔ}}
|{{GrGl|Alpha 03}}
|Α
|[[alpha]]
|{{IPAslink|a}}, {{IPAslink|aː}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician beth.svg|x12px]]
|[[beth (letter)|beth]]
|{{IPAslink|b}}
|{{GrGl|Beta 16}}
|Β
|[[beta]]
|{{IPAslink|b}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician gimel.svg|x12px]]
|[[gimel (letter)|gimel]]
|{{IPAslink|ɡ}}
|{{GrGl|Gamma archaic 1}}
|Γ
|[[gamma]]
|{{IPAslink|ɡ}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician daleth.svg|x12px]]
|[[daleth (letter)|daleth]]
|{{IPAslink|d}}
|{{GrGl|Delta 04}}
|Δ
|[[delta (letter)|delta]]
|{{IPAslink|d}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician he.svg|x12px]]
|[[he (letter)|he]]
|{{IPAslink|h}}
|{{GrGl|Epsilon archaic}}
|Ε
|[[epsilon]]
|{{IPAslink|e}}, {{IPAslink|eː}}<ref name="longepsilon">Epsilon {{angle bracket|ε}} and omicron {{angle bracket|ο}} originally could denote both short and long vowels in pre-classical archaic Greek spelling, just like other vowel letters. They were restricted to the function of short vowel signs in classical Greek, as the long vowels {{IPAslink|eː}} and {{IPAslink|oː}} came to be spelled instead with the digraphs {{angle bracket|ει}} and {{angle bracket|ου}}, having phonologically merged with a corresponding pair of former diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ respectively.</ref>
|-
|[[File:Phoenician waw.svg|x12px]]
|[[waw (letter)|waw]]
|{{IPAslink|w}}
|{{GrGl|Digamma oblique}}
| –
|''([[digamma]])''
|{{IPAslink|w}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician zayin.svg|x12px]]
|[[zayin (letter)|zayin]]
|{{IPAslink|z}}
|{{GrGl|Zeta archaic}}
|Ζ
|[[zeta (letter)|zeta]]
|[zd](?)
|-
|[[File:Phoenician heth.svg|x12px]]
|[[heth (letter)|heth]]
|{{IPAslink|ħ}}
|{{GrGl|Eta archaic}}
|Η
|[[eta (letter)|eta]]
|{{IPAslink|h}}, {{IPAslink|ɛː}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician teth.svg|x12px]]
|[[teth (letter)|teth]]
|{{IPAslink|tˤ}}
|{{GrGl|Theta archaic}}
|Θ
|[[theta]]
|{{IPAslink|tʰ}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician yodh.svg|x12px]]
|[[yodh (letter)|yodh]]
|{{IPAslink|j}}
|{{GrGl|Iota normal}}
|Ι
|[[iota]]
|{{IPAslink|i}}, {{IPAslink|iː}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician kaph.svg|x12px]]
|[[kaph (letter)|kaph]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|{{GrGl|Kappa normal}}
|Κ
|[[kappa]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician lamedh.svg|x12px]]
|[[lamedh (letter)|lamedh]]
|{{IPAslink|l}}
|{{GrGl|Lambda 09}}
|Λ
|[[lambda]]
|{{IPAslink|l}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician mem.svg|x12px]]
|[[mem (letter)|mem]]
|{{IPAslink|m}}
|{{GrGl|Mu 04}}
|Μ
|[[mu (letter)|mu]]
|{{IPAslink|m}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician nun.svg|x12px]]
|[[nun (letter)|nun]]
|{{IPAslink|n}}
|{{GrGl|Nu 01}}
|Ν
|[[nu (letter)|nu]]
|{{IPAslink|n}}
|-
|}
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Phoenician
!colspan="4"|Greek
|-
|[[File:Phoenician samekh.svg|x12px]]
|[[samekh]]
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|{{GrGl|Xi archaic}}
|Ξ
|[[xi (letter)|xi]]
|{{IPA|/ks/}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician ayin.svg|x12px]]
|[[ayin (letter)|ʿayin]]
|{{IPAslink|ʕ}}
|{{GrGl|Omicron 04}}
|Ο
|[[omicron]]
|{{IPAslink|o}}, {{IPAslink|oː}}<ref name="longepsilon"/>
|-
|[[File:Phoenician pe.svg|x12px]]
|[[pe (letter)|pe]]
|{{IPAslink|p}}
|{{GrGl|Pi archaic}}
|Π
|[[pi (letter)|pi]]
|{{IPAslink|p}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician sade.svg|x12px]]
|[[Tsade (letter)|ṣade]]
|{{IPAslink|sˤ}}
|{{GrGl|San 02}}
| –
|''([[San (letter)|san]])''
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician qoph.svg|x12px]]
|[[qoph]]
|{{IPAslink|q}}
|{{GrGl|Koppa normal}}
| –
|''([[koppa (letter)|koppa]])''
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician res.svg|x12px]]
|[[resh|reš]]
|{{IPAslink|r}}
|{{GrGl|Rho pointed}}
|Ρ
|[[rho]]
|{{IPAslink|r}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician sin.svg|x12px]]
|[[shin (letter)|šin]]
|{{IPAslink|ʃ}}
|{{GrGl|Sigma normal}}
|Σ
|[[sigma]]
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician taw.svg|x12px]]
|[[taw]]
|{{IPAslink|t}}
|{{GrGl|Tau normal}}
|Τ
|[[tau (letter)|tau]]
|{{IPAslink|t}}
|-
|[[File:Phoenician waw.svg|x12px]]
|''([[waw (letter)|waw]])''
|{{IPAslink|w}}
|{{GrGl|Upsilon normal}}
|Υ
|[[upsilon]]
|{{IPAslink|u}}, {{IPAslink|uː}}
|-
|colspan="3"| –
|{{GrGl|Phi archaic}}
|Φ
|[[phi]]
|{{IPAslink|pʰ}}
|-
|colspan="3"| –
|{{GrGl|Chi normal}}
|Χ
|[[chi (letter)|chi]]
|{{IPAslink|kʰ}}
|-
|colspan="3"| –
|{{GrGl|Psi straight}}
|Ψ
|[[psi (letter)|psi]]
|{{IPA|/ps/}}
|-
|colspan="3"| –
|{{GrGl|Omega normal}}
|Ω
|[[omega]]
|{{IPAslink|ɔː}}
|-
|}
<br style="clear:left;"/>
 
</div>
[[Image:NAMA Alphabet grec.jpg|thumb|right|Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the [[National Archaeological Museum of Athens]]]]
 
Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before the alphabet took its classical shape: the letter {{Unicode|Ϻ}} (''[[San (letter)|san]]''), which had been in competition with Σ (''[[sigma]]'') denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter {{Unicode|Ϙ}} (''[[qoppa]]''), which was redundant with Κ (''[[kappa]]'') for /k/, and Ϝ (''[[digamma]]''), whose sound value /w/ dropped out of the spoken language before or during the classical period.
 
Greek was originally written predominantly from right to left, just like Phoenician, but scribes could freely alternate between directions. For a time, a writing style with alternating right-to-left and left-to-right lines (called ''[[boustrophedon]]'', literally "ox-turning", after the manner of an ox ploughing a field) was common, until in the classical period the left-to-right writing direction became the norm. Individual letter shapes were mirrored depending on the writing direction of the current line.
 
=== Archaic variants ===
{{main|Archaic Greek alphabets}}
 
There were initially numerous [[Archaic Greek alphabets|local variants]] of the Greek alphabet, which differed in the use and non-use of the additional vowel and consonant symbols and several other features. A form of western Greek native to [[Euboea]], which among other things had Χ for /ks/, was transplanted to Italy by early Greek colonists, and became the ancestor of the Old Italic alphabets and ultimately, through [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]], of the [[Latin alphabet]]. [[Athens]] used a local form of the alphabet until the 5th century BC; it lacked the letters Ξ and Ψ as well as the vowel symbols Η and Ω. The classical 24-letter alphabet that became the norm later was originally the local alphabet of [[Ionia]]; this was adopted by Athens in 403 BC under [[Eponymous archon|archon]] [[Eucleides]] and in most other parts of the Greek-speaking world during the 4th century BC.
 
=== Letter names ===
When the Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values, but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus ''[[Aleph|ʾaleph]]'', the word for "ox", was used as the name for the glottal stop {{IPA|/ʔ/}}, ''[[Bet (letter)|bet]]'', or "house", for the {{IPA|/b/}} sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, ''ʾaleph, bet, gimel'' became ''alpha, beta, gamma''.
 
The Greek names of the following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in the name of ''beta'', ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient /ɛː/ to modern /i/, resulting in the modern pronunciation ''vita''). The name of lambda is attested in early sources as {{lang|grc|λάβδα}} besides {{lang|grc|λάμβδα}};<ref>{{harvnb|Liddell|Scott|1940|loc=s.v. "λάβδα"}}</ref> in Modern Greek the spelling is often {{lang|el|λάμδα}}. The name of iota is sometimes rendered as {{lang|el|γιώτα}} in Modern Greek, following regular spelling conventions for the rendering of an initial glide /j/. In the tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in the simplified monotonic system.
{{Listen|filename= Ell-AlphabitosUpload.ogg|title=Greek Alphabet.|description=(Names of the letters pronounced in Modern Greek)|format=[[Ogg]]}}
 
{|class="wikitable"
!rowspan="2"|Phoenician
!colspan="4"|Greek
!rowspan="2"|English
|-
!letter!!ancient!!modern!!spelling
|-
|aleph|| Α || {{IPA|alpʰa}}||{{IPA|ˈalfa}}||{{lang|el|ἄλφα}}||alpha
|-
|beth|| Β || {{IPA|bɛːta}}||{{IPA|ˈvita}}||{{lang|el|βῆτα}}||beta
|-
|gimel|| Γ || {{IPA|ɡamma}}||{{IPA|ˈɣama}}||{{lang|el|γάμμα}}||gamma
|-
|daleth|| Δ || {{IPA|delta}}||{{IPA|ˈðelta}}||{{lang|el|δέλτα}}||delta
|-
|heth|| Η || {{IPA|hɛːta, ɛːta}}||{{IPA|ˈita}}||{{lang|el|ἦτα}}||eta
|-
|teth|| Θ || {{IPA|tʰɛːta}}||{{IPA|ˈθita}}||{{lang|el|θῆτα}}||theta
|-
|yodh|| Ι || {{IPA|iɔːta}}||{{IPA|ˈjota}}||{{lang|el|ἰῶτα}}||iota
|-
|kaph|| Κ || {{IPA|kappa}}||{{IPA|ˈkapa}}||{{lang|el|κάππα}}||kappa
|-
|lamedh|| Λ || {{IPA|lambda}}||{{IPA|ˈlamða}}||{{lang|el|λάμβδα}}||lambda
|-
|mem|| Μ || {{IPA|myː}}||{{IPA|mi}}||{{lang|el|μῦ}}||mu
|-
|nun|| Ν || {{IPA|nyː}}||{{IPA|ni}}||{{lang|el|νῦ}}||nu
|-
|reš|| Ρ || {{IPA|rɔː}}||{{IPA|ro}}||{{lang|el|ῥῶ}}||rho
|-
|taw|| Τ || {{IPA|tau}}||{{IPA|taf}}||{{lang|el|ταῦ}}||tau
|-
|}
 
In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sibilant letter, obsolete [[San (letter)|san]]) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular.
 
{|class="wikitable"
!rowspan="2"|Phoenician
!colspan="4"|Greek
!rowspan="2"|English
|-
!letter!!ancient!!modern!!spelling
|-
|zayin || Ζ || {{IPA|dzɛːta}}||{{IPA|zita}}||{{lang|el|ζῆτα}}||zeta
|-
|samekh|| Ξ || {{IPA|kseː}}||{{IPA|ksi}}||{{lang|el|ξεῖ, ξῖ}}||xi
|-
|šin  || Σ || {{IPA|siɡma}}||{{IPA|siɣma}}||{{lang|el|σίγμα}}||siɡma
|-
|}
 
In the following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with {{lang|grc|-εῖ}}, indicating an original pronunciation with ''-ē''. In Modern Greek these names are spelled with {{lang|el|-ι}}.
 
{|class="wikitable"
!colspan="5"|Greek
!rowspan="2"|English
|-
!letter!!ancient!!spelling!!modern!!spelling
|-
| Ξ || {{IPA|kseː}}||{{lang|el|ξεῖ}}||{{IPA|ksi}}||{{lang|el|ξῖ}}||xi
|-
| Π || {{IPA|peː}}||{{lang|el|πεῖ}}||{{IPA|pi}}||{{lang|el|πῖ}}||pi
|-
| Φ || {{IPA|pʰeː}}||{{lang|el|φεῖ}}||{{IPA|fi}}||{{lang|el|φῖ}}||phi
|-
| Χ || {{IPA|kʰeː}}||{{lang|el|χεῖ}}||{{IPA|çi}}||{{lang|el|χῖ}}||chi
|-
| Ψ || {{IPA|pseː}}||{{lang|el|ψεῖ}}||{{IPA|psi}}||{{lang|el|ψῖ}}||psi
|-
|}
 
The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and {{IPA|ɔ}}. Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during the Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable. Thus, the letters {{angle bracket|ο}} and {{angle bracket|ω}}, pronounced identically by this time, were called ''o mikron'' ("small o") and ''o mega'' ("big o") respectively. The letter {{angle bracket|ε}} was called ''e psilon'' ("plain e") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph {{angle bracket|αι}}, while, similarly, {{angle bracket|υ}}, which at this time was pronounced {{IPAblink|y}}, was called ''y psilon'' ("plain y") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph {{angle bracket|οι}}.
 
{|class="wikitable"
!colspan="7"|Greek
!rowspan="2"|English
|-
!letter!!ancient!!spelling!!medieval!!meaning!!modern!!spelling
|-
| Ε || {{IPA|eː}}||{{lang|el|εἶ}}||{{lang|el|ἐ ψιλόν}}|| 'plain e' ||{{IPA|ˈepsilon}}||{{lang|el|ἔψιλον}}||epsilon
|-
| Ο || {{IPA|oː}}||{{lang|el|οὖ}}||{{lang|el|ὀ μικρόν}}|| 'small o' ||{{IPA|ˈomikron}}||{{lang|el|ὄμικρον}}||omicron
|-
| Υ || {{IPA|uː}}, {{IPA|yː}}||{{lang|el|ὖ}}||{{lang|el|ὐ ψιλόν}}|| 'plain y' ||{{IPA|ˈipsilon}}||{{lang|el|ὔψιλον}}||upsilon
|-
| Ω || {{IPA|ɔː}}||{{lang|el|ὦ}}||{{lang|el|ὠ μέγα}}|| 'big o' ||{{IPA|oˈmeɣa}}||{{lang|el|ὠμέγα}}||omega
|-
|}
 
=== Letter shapes ===
[[File:Gospel Estienne 1550.jpg|thumb|upright|A 16th-century edition of the New Testament, printed in a renaissance typeface by [[Claude Garamond]]]]
Like Latin and other alphabetic scripts, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter, without a distinction between uppercase and lowercase. This distinction is an innovation of the modern era, drawing on different lines of development of the letter shapes in earlier handwriting.
 
The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are [[majuscule]] forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from [[papyrus]] manuscripts in [[Egypt]] since the [[Hellenistic period]]. Ancient handwriting developed two distinct styles: [[uncial]] writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of about equal size, used as a [[book hand]] for carefully produced literary and religious manuscripts, and [[cursive#Cursive Greek|cursive]] writing, used for everyday purposes.<ref name="thompson">{{harvnb|Thompson|1912|pp=102–103}}</ref> The cursive forms approached the style of lowercase letter forms, with [[Ascender (typography)|ascenders]] and descenders, as well as many connecting lines and ligatures between letters.
 
In the 9th and 10th century, uncial book hands were replaced with a new, more compact writing style, with letter forms partly adapted from the earlier cursive.<ref name="thompson"/> This [[Greek minuscule|minuscule]] style remained the dominant form of handwritten Greek into the modern era. During the [[Renaissance]], western printers adopted the minuscule letter forms as lowercase printed typefaces, while modelling uppercase letters on the ancient inscriptional forms. The orthographic practice of using the letter case distinction for marking proper names, titles etc. developed in parallel to the practice in Latin and other western languages.
 
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="2"|Inscription
!colspan="2"|Manuscript
!colspan="2"|Modern print
|-
!archaic!!classical!![[uncial]]!![[Greek minuscule|minuscule]]!!lowercase!!uppercase
|-
|{{GrGl|Alpha 03}}
|{{GrGl|Alpha classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Alpha}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Alpha.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|α
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Α
|-
|{{GrGl|Beta 16}}
|{{GrGl|Beta classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Beta}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Beta.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|β
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Β
|-
|{{GrGl|Gamma archaic 1}}
|{{GrGl|Gamma classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Gamma}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Gamma.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|γ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Γ
|-
|{{GrGl|Delta 04}}
|{{GrGl|Delta classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Delta}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Delta.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|δ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Δ
|-
|{{GrGl|Epsilon archaic}}
|{{GrGl|Epsilon classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Epsilon}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Epsilon.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|ε
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Ε
|-
|{{GrGl|Zeta archaic}}
|{{GrGl|Zeta classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Zeta}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Zeta.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|ζ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Ζ
|-
|{{GrGl|Eta archaic}}
|{{GrGl|Eta classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Eta}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Eta.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|η
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Η
|-
|{{GrGl|Theta archaic}}
|{{GrGl|Theta classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Theta}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Theta.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|θ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Θ
|-
|{{GrGl|Iota normal}}
|{{GrGl|Iota classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Iota}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Iota.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|ι
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Ι
|-
|{{GrGl|Kappa normal}}
|{{GrGl|Kappa classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Kappa}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Kappa.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|κ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Κ
|-
|{{GrGl|Lambda 09}}
|{{GrGl|Lambda classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Lambda}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Lambda.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|λ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Λ
|-
|{{GrGl|Mu 04}}
|{{GrGl|Mu classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Mu}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Mu.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|μ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Μ
|-
|{{GrGl|Nu 01}}
|{{GrGl|Nu classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Nu}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Nu.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|ν
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Ν
|-
|{{GrGl|Xi archaic}}
|{{GrGl|Xi classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Xi}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Xi.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|ξ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Ξ
|-
|{{GrGl|Omicron 04}}
|{{GrGl|Omicron classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Omicron}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Omicron.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|ο
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Ο
|-
|{{GrGl|Pi archaic}}
|{{GrGl|Pi classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Pi}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Pi.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|π
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Π
|-
|{{GrGl|Rho pointed}}
|{{GrGl|Rho classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Rho}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Rho.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|ρ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Ρ
|-
|{{GrGl|Sigma normal}}
|{{GrGl|Sigma classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Sigma}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Sigma.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|σς
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Σ
|-
|{{GrGl|Tau normal}}
|{{GrGl|Tau classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Tau}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Tau.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|τ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Τ
|-
|{{GrGl|Upsilon normal}}
|{{GrGl|Upsilon classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Upsilon}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Upsilon.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|υ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Υ
|-
|{{GrGl|Phi 03}}
|{{GrGl|Phi archaic}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Phi}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Phi.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|φ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Φ
|-
|{{GrGl|Chi normal}}
|{{GrGl|Chi classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Chi}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Chi.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|χ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Χ
|-
|{{GrGl|Psi straight}}
|{{GrGl|Psi classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Psi}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Psi.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|ψ
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Ψ
|-
|{{GrGl|Omega normal}}
|{{GrGl|Omega classical}}
|{{GrGl|uncial Omega}}
|[[File:Greek minuscule Omega.svg|x30px]]
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|ω
|style="font-family:serif;font-size:larger;"|Ω
|-
|}
 
== Derived alphabets ==
[[File:Masiliana tablet.svg|thumb|right|300px|The earliest Etruscan [[abecedarium]], from Marsiliana d'Albegna, still almost identical with contemporary archaic Greek alphabets]]
[[File:Wulfila bibel.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the [[Codex Argenteus]], a 6th-century bible manuscript in Gothic]]
The Greek alphabet was the model for various others:{{sfn|Coulmas|1996|p=}}
*The [[Latin alphabet]], together with various other [[Old Italic script|ancient scripts in Italy]], adopted from an archaic form of the Greek alphabet brought to Italy by Greek colonists in the late 8th century BC, via [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]]
*The [[Gothic alphabet]], devised in the 4th century AD to write the [[Gothic language]], based on a combination of Greek and Latin models.<ref>{{harvnb|Murdoch|2004|156}}</ref>
*The [[Glagolitic alphabet]], devised in the 9th century AD for writing [[Old Church Slavonic]]
*The [[Cyrillic script]], which replaced the Glagolitic alphabet shortly afterwards
 
It is also considered a possible ancestor of the [[Armenian alphabet]], which in turn influenced the development of the [[Georgian alphabet]].<ref>{{harvnb|Stevenson|2007|p=1158}}</ref>
 
== Other uses ==
 
=== Use for other languages ===
Apart from the daughter alphabets listed above, which were adapted from Greek but developed into separate writing systems, the Greek alphabet has also been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages.{{sfn|Macrakis|1996|p=}} For some of them, additional letters were introduced.
 
==== Antiquity ====
*Most of the [[alphabets of Asia Minor]], in use c. 800–300 BC to write languages like [[Lydian language|Lydian]] and [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]], were the early Greek alphabet with only slight modifications – as were the original [[Old Italic script|Old Italic alphabet]]s.
*Some [[Paleo-Balkan languages]], including [[Thracian language|Thracian]]. For other neighboring languages or dialects, such as [[Ancient Macedonian language|Ancient Macedonian]], isolated words are preserved in Greek texts, but no continuous texts are preserved.
*The [[Greco-Iberian alphabet]] was used for writing the ancient [[Iberian language]] in parts of modern Spain.
*Some [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] inscriptions (in modern France) use the Greek alphabet (c. 300 BC).
*The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] text of the [[Bible]] was written in Greek letters in [[Origen]]'s [[Hexapla]].
*The [[Bactrian language]], an [[Iranian languages|Iranian language]] spoken in what is now [[Afghanistan]], was written in the Greek alphabet during the [[Kushan Empire]] (65–250 AD). It adds an extra letter {{angle bracket|[[Sho (letter)|þ]]}} for the ''sh'' sound {{IPAblink|ʃ}}.{{sfn|Sims-Williams|1997|p=}}
*The [[Coptic alphabet]] adds eight letters derived from [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic]]. It is still used today, mostly in Egypt, to write [[Coptic language|Coptic]], the liturgical language of Egyptian Christians. Letters usually retain an [[Uncial script|uncial form]] different from the forms used for Greek today.
 
==== Middle Ages ====
*An 8th-century [[Arabic language|Arabic]] fragment preserves a text in the Greek alphabet.
*An [[Ossetic language|Old Ossetic]] inscription of the 10-12c AD found in [[Arxyz]], the oldest known attestation of an Ossetic language.
*The [[Old Nubian language]] of [[Makuria]] (modern Sudan) adds three Coptic letters, two letters derived from [[Meroitic script]], and a digraph of two Greek gammas used for the [[velar nasal]] sound.
*Various [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] dialects, similar to the modern [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian language]]s, have been written in Greek script.{{sfn|Miletich|1920|p=}}{{sfn|Mazon|Vaillant|1938|p=}}{{sfn|Kristophson|1974|p=11}}{{sfn|Peyfuss|1989|p=}} The modern South Slavic languages now use modified [[Cyrillic alphabets]].<!--see footnote in Macrakis 1996-->
 
==== Early modern ====
[[File:Karamanlidika title page 1784.JPG|thumb|right|18th century title page of a book printed in Karamanli Turkish]]
*[[Turkish language|Turkish]] spoken by [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] (''[[Karamanlides]]'') was often written in Greek script, and called ''[[Karamanli Turkish|Karamanlidika]]''.
*[[Tosk language|Tosk]] [[Albanian language|Albanian]] was often written using the Greek alphabet, starting in about 1500.{{sfn|Elsie|1991|p=}} The printing press at [[Moschopolis]] published several Albanian texts in Greek script during the 18th century. It was only in 1908 that the [[Bitola|Monastir]] conference standardized a [[Albanian alphabet|Latin orthography]] for both Tosk and [[Gheg language|Gheg]]. Greek spelling is still occasionally used for the local Albanian dialects ([[Arvanitika]]) in Greece.
*[[Aromanian language|Aromanian]] (Vlach) has been written in Greek characters. There is not yet a standardized orthography for Aromanian, but it appears that one based on the [[Romanian language|Romanian]] orthography will be adopted.
*[[Gagauz language|Gagauz]], a [[Turkic language]] of the northeast Balkans.
*[[Surguch]], a [[Turkic language]] spoken by a small group of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] in northern Greece.
*[[Urum language|Urum]] or Greek Tatar.
 
=== In mathematics and science ===
{{main|Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering}}
Greek symbols are traditionally used as names in [[mathematics]], [[physics]] and other [[science]]s.  Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for [[Limit (mathematics)|an arbitrarily small positive number]], lower case pi (π) for the [[Pi|ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter]], capital sigma (Σ) for [[summation]], and lower case sigma (σ) for [[standard deviation]].
 
===Astronomy===
Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty-eight [[constellation]]s. In most constellations the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of [[Centaurus]] is known as [[Alpha Centauri]]. However, for historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter.
 
=== International Phonetic alphabet ===
Several Greek letters are used as phonetic symbols in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).<ref>{{cite book|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association|year=1999|place=Cambridge|publisher=University Press|pages=176–181}}</ref> Several of them denote [[fricative]] consonants; the rest stand for variants of vowel sounds. The glyph shapes used for these letters in specialized phonetic fonts is sometimes slightly different from the conventional shapes in Greek typography proper, with glyphs typically being more upright and using [[serifs]], to make them conform more with the typographical character of other, Latin-based letters in the phonetic alphabet. Nevertheless, in the Unicode encoding standard, the following three phonetic symbols are considered the same characters as the corresponding Greek letters proper:
 
{|class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|β}} || beta || U+03B2 || [[voiced bilabial fricative]]
|-
| {{IPA|θ}} || theta || U+03B8 || [[voiceless dental fricative]]
|-
| {{IPA|χ}} || chi || U+03C7 || [[voiceless velar fricative]]
|}
 
On the other hand, the following phonetic letters have Unicode representations separate from their Greek alphabetic use, either because their conventional typographic shape is too different from the original, or because they also have secondary uses as regular alphabetic characters in some Latin-based alphabets, including separate Latin uppercase letters distinct from the Greek ones.
 
{|class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"|Greek letter
!colspan="4"|Phonetic letter
!Uppercase
|-
|φ||phi||{{IPA|ɸ}} ||U+0278 || Latin small letter phi||[[voiceless bilabial fricative]]|| –
|-
|γ||gamma||{{IPA|ɣ}}||U+0263||Latin small letter gamma || [[voiced velar fricative]] || Ɣ U+0194
|-
|ε||epsilon||{{IPA|ɛ}}||U+025B||Latin small letter open e<br/>(alias: epsilon)|| [[Open-mid front unrounded vowel]] || Ɛ U+0190
|-
|α||alpha||{{IPA|ɑ}}||U+0251||Latin small letter alpha||[[Open back unrounded vowel]]|| Ɑ U+2C6D
|-
|υ||upsilon||{{IPA|ʊ}}||U+028A||Latin small letter upsilon||[[Near-close near-back vowel]] || Ʊ U+01B1
|-
|ι||iota||{{IPA|ɩ}}||U+0269||Latin small letter iota||obsolete for [[near-close near-front unrounded vowel]] now [[ɪ]] || Ɩ U+0196
|-
|}
 
The Greek letter λ has also been used as a phonetic symbol, as an alternate for IPA "ɬ" ([[lateral fricative]]), especially in [[Americanist phonetic notation]], but is not officially part of the IPA. The IPA uses the very similar-looking inverted lowercase 'y' (unicode U+028E) to represent the [[palatal lateral approximant]].
 
=== Use as numerals ===
{{main|Greek numerals}}
Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made up the standard alphabet, three otherwise obsolete letters were retained or revived: [[digamma]] {{angle bracket|Ϝ}} for 6, [[koppa (letter)|koppa]] {{angle bracket|Ϙ}} for 90, and a rare Ionian letter for [ss], today called [[sampi]] {{angle bracket|Ͳ}}, for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes such as enumerating chapters in a book, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English. The three extra symbols are today written as {{angle bracket|ϛ}}, {{angle bracket|ϟ}} and {{angle bracket|ϡ}} respectively. To mark a letter as a numeral sign, a small stroke called ''keraia'' is added to the right of it.
 
<div style="float:none;">
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left;"
|-
|Αʹ αʹ || [[alpha]] || 1
|-
|Βʹ βʹ || [[beta]] || 2
|-
|Γʹ γʹ || [[gamma]] || 3
|-
|Δʹ δʹ || [[delta (letter)|delta]] || 4
|-
|Εʹ εʹ || [[epsilon]] || 5
|-
|ϛʹ || ''[[digamma]] (stigma)'' || 6
|-
|Ζʹ ζʹ || [[zeta (letter)|zeta]] || 7
|-
|Ηʹ ηʹ || [[eta]] || 8
|-
|Θʹ θʹ|| [[theta]] || 9
|-
|}
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left;"
|-
|Ιʹ ιʹ || [[iota]] || 10
|-
|Κʹ κʹ || [[kappa]] || 20
|-
|Λʹ λʹ || [[lambda]] || 30
|-
|Μʹ μʹ || [[mu (letter)|mu]] || 40
|-
|Νʹ νʹ || [[nu (letter)|nu]] || 50
|-
|Ξʹ ξʹ || [[xi (letter)|xi]] || 60
|-
|Οʹ οʹ || [[omicron]] || 70
|-
|Πʹ πʹ || [[pi (letter)|pi]] || 80
|-
|ϟʹ || ''[[koppa (letter)|koppa]]'' || 90
|-
|}
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left;"
|-
|Ρʹ ρʹ || [[rho]] || 100
|-
|Σʹ σʹ || [[sigma]] || 200
|-
|Τʹ τʹ || [[tau (letter)|tau]] || 300
|-
|Υʹ υʹ || [[upsilon]] || 400
|-
|Φʹ φʹ || [[phi (letter)|phi]] || 500
|-
|Χʹ χʹ || [[chi (letter)|chi]] || 600
|-
|Ψʹ ψʹ || [[psi (letter)|psi]] || 700
|-
|Ωʹ ωʹ|| [[omega]] || 800
|-
| ϡʹ || ''[[sampi]]'' || 900
|-
|}
 
<br style="clear:left;"/>
</div>
 
=== Use in naming student fraternities and sororities ===
In North America, many college [[Fraternities and sororities in North America|fraternities and sororities]] are named with combinations of Greek letters, and are hence also known as "Greek letter organizations". This naming tradition was initiated by the foundation of the [[Phi Beta Kappa Society]], in 1776.<ref>Vincent, Fran.''[http://www.greekpages.com/LocalsOnline/history.htm The history of college fraternities]''.Greeklife.com, 1996, p.1.</ref>
 
== Glyph variants ==
Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval [[History of the Greek alphabet#Later developments|minuscule]] handwriting. While their use in normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings in [[Unicode]].
*The symbol {{Unicode|ϐ}} ("curled beta") is a cursive variant form of [[Beta (letter)|beta]] (β).  In the French tradition of Ancient Greek typography, β is used word-initially, and {{Unicode|ϐ}} is used word-internally.
*The letter [[epsilon]] can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped <math>\epsilon\,\!</math> ('lunate epsilon', like a semicircle with a stroke) or <math>\varepsilon\,\!</math> (similar to a reversed number 3). The symbol {{Unicode|ϵ}} (U+03F5) is designated specifically for the lunate form, used as a technical symbol.
*The symbol {{Unicode|ϑ}} ("script theta") is a cursive form of [[theta]] (θ), frequent in handwriting, and used with a specialized meaning as a technical symbol.
*The symbol {{Unicode|ϰ}} ("kappa symbol") is a cursive form of [[kappa]] (κ), used as a technical symbol.
*The symbol {{Unicode|ϖ}} ("variant pi") is an archaic script form of [[pi]] (π), also used as a technical symbol.
*The letter [[rho (letter)|rho]] (ρ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the descending tail either going straight down or curled to the right. The symbol {{Unicode|ϱ}} (U+03F1) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technical symbol.
*The letter [[sigma]], in standard orthography, has two variants: ς, used only at the ends of words, and σ, used elsewhere. The form {{Unicode|ϲ}} ("[[Sigma#Lunate sigma|lunate sigma]]", resembling a Latin ''[[c]]'') is a medieval stylistic variant that can be used in both environments without the final/non-final distinction.
*The capital letter [[upsilon]] (Υ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the upper strokes either straight like a Latin ''Y'', or slightly curled. The symbol {{Unicode|ϒ}} (U+03D2) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technical symbol.
*The letter [[Phi (letter)|phi]] can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped as <math>\textstyle\phi\,\!</math> (a circle with a vertical stroke through it) or as <math>\textstyle\varphi\,\!</math> (a curled shape open at the top). The symbol {{Unicode|ϕ}} (U+03D5) is designated specifically for the closed form, used as a technical symbol.
 
== Computer encodings ==
For the usage in computers, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in RFC 1947.
 
The two principal ones still used today are [[ISO/IEC 8859-7]] and [[Unicode]]. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic orthography; Unicode supports the polytonic orthography.
 
=== ISO/IEC 8859-7 ===
For the range A0–FF (hex) it follows the Unicode range 370–3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, ½, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings it is equal to ASCII for 00–7F (hex).
 
=== Greek in Unicode ===
 
{{main|Greek and Coptic|Greek Extended}}
 
Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for [[epigraphy]]. With the use of [[combining character]]s, Unicode also supports Greek [[philology]] and [[dialectology]] and various other specialized requirements. Most current text rendering engines do not render diacritics well, so, though alpha with [[macron]] and [[acute accent|acute]] can be ''represented'' as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well: {{lang|grc|ᾱ́}}.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}}
 
There are 2 main blocks of Greek characters in [[Unicode]].
The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF).
This block is based on [[ISO 8859-7]] and is sufficient to write Modern Greek.
There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols.
 
This block also supports the [[Coptic alphabet]]. Formerly most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of
Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with
no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U+03E2 to U+03EF).
 
To write polytonic Greek, one may use [[combining diacritical mark]]s or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF).
 
{{Unicode chart Greek and Coptic}}
{{Unicode chart Greek Extended}}
 
==== Combining and letter-free diacritics ====
[[Combining diacritical mark|Combining]] and spacing (letter-free) [[diacritical mark]]s pertaining to [[Greek language]]:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!combining!!spacing!!sample!!description
|-
|U+0300||U+0060||( {{lang|grc|&nbsp;̀}})||"varia / [[grave accent]]"
|-
|U+0301||U+00B4, U+0384||( {{lang|grc|&nbsp;́}})||"oxia / tonos / [[acute accent]]"
|-
|U+0304||U+00AF||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̄}})||"[[macron]]"
|-
|U+0306||U+02D8||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̆}})||"vrachy / [[breve]]"
|-
|U+0308||U+00A8||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̈}})||"dialytika / [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]]"
|-
|U+0313||U+02BC||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̓}})||"psili / comma above" ([[spiritus lenis]])
|-
|U+0314||U+02BD||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̔}})||"dasia / reversed comma above" ([[spiritus asper]])
|-
|U+0342||||( {{unicode|&nbsp;͂}})||"perispomeni" ([[circumflex]])
|-
|U+0343||||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̓}})||"[[Coronis (diacritic)|koronis]]" (= U+0313)
|-
|U+0344||U+0385||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̈́}})||"dialytika tonos" (deprecated, = U+0308 U+0301)
|-
|U+0345||U+037A||( {{unicode|&nbsp;ͅ}})||"ypogegrammeni / [[iota subscript]]".
|}
 
=== Encodings with a subset of the Greek alphabet ===
[[IBM]] code pages [[Code page 437|437]], [[Code page 860|860]], [[Code page 861|861]], [[Code page 862|862]], [[Code page 863|863]], and [[Code page 865|865]] contain the letters ΓΘΣΦΩαδεπστφ (plus β as an alternate interpretation for [[ß]]).
 
== References ==
{{reflist|20em}}
 
== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book|last=Cook|first=B. F.|year=1987|title=Greek inscriptions|place=|publisher=University of California Press/British Museum|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Coulmas|first=Florian|title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems|year=1996|publisher=Blackwell Publishers Ltd.|location=Oxford|isbn=0-631-21481-X|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Daniels|first1=Peter T|last2=Bright|first2=William|year=1996|title=The World's Writing Systems|publisher=Oxford University Press|ref=harv}}
*{{cite journal|last=Elsie|first=Robert|year=1991|title=Albanian Literature in Greek Script: the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth-Century Orthodox Tradition in Albanian Writing|journal=Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies|volume=15|issue=20|url=http://www.elsie.de/pdf/articles/A1991AlbLitGreek.pdf|ref=harv}}
*{{cite thesis  |last=Hinge|first=George  |year=2001|title=Die Sprache Alkmans: Textgeschichte und Sprachgeschichte|publisher=University of Aarhus |type=Ph.D.|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Holton|first1=David|first2=Peter|last2=Mackridge|first3=Irini|last3=Philippaki-Warburton|title=Grammatiki tis ellinikis glossas|place=Athens|publisher=Pataki|year=1998|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Horrocks|first=Geoffrey|year=2006|title=Ellinika: istoria tis glossas kai ton omiliton tis|location=Athens|publisher=Estia}} [Greek translation of ''Greek: a history of the language and its speakers'', London 1997]
*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Johnston|first=A. W.|year=2003|title=The alphabet|encyclopedia=Sea Routes from Sidon to Huelva: Interconnections in the Mediterranean 16th – 6th c. B.C.|editor1-last=Stampolidis|editor1-first=N.|editor2-last=Karageorghis|editor2-first=V|pages=263–276|place=Athens|publisher=Museum of Cycladic Art|ref=harv}}
*{{cite journal|last=Kristophson|first=Jürgen |year=1974|title=Das Lexicon Tetraglosson des Daniil Moschopolitis|journal=Zeitschrift für Balkanologie|volume=10|issue=|pages=4–128|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Liddell|first1=Henry G|last2=Scott|first2=Robert|year=1940|title=A Greek-English Lexicon|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0057|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Macrakis|first=Stavros M|year=1996|chapter=Character codes for Greek: Problems and modern solutions|editor-last=Macrakis|editor-first=Michael|title=Greek letters: from tablets to pixels|location=Newcastle|publisher=Oak Knoll Press|page=265|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Mazon|first1=André |last2=Vaillant|first2=André |year=1938|title=L'Evangéliaire de Kulakia, un parler slave de Bas-Vardar|series=Bibliothèque d'études balkaniques|volume=6|issue=|place=Paris|publisher=Librairie Droz|pages=|ref=harv}} – selections from the Gospels in Macedonian.
*{{cite journal|last=Miletich|first=L.|year=1920|title=Dva bŭlgarski ru̐kopisa s grŭtsko pismo|journal=Bŭlgarski starini|volume=6|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Murdoch|first=Brian|year=2004|chapter=Gothic|title=Early Germanic literature and culture|pages=149–170|editors=Brian Murdoch and Malcolm Read|location=Woodbridge|publisher=Camden House}}
*{{cite book|last=Peyfuss|first=Max Demeter|year=1989|title=Die Druckerei von Moschopolis, 1731–1769: Buchdruck und Heiligenverehrung in Erzbistum Achrida|place=|publisher=Böhlau Verlag|series=Wiener Archiv für Geschichte des Slawentums und Osteuropas|volume=13|ref=harv}}
*{{cite web|last=Sims-Williams|first=Nicholas|year=1997|url=http://www.gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~hkum/bactrian.html|title=New Findings in Ancient Afghanistan – the Bactrian documents discovered from the Northern Hindu-Kush|ref=harv}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Swiggers|first=Pierre|year=1996|title=Transmission of the Phoenician Script to the West|encyclopedia=The World's Writing Systems|editor1-last=Daniels|editor2-last=Bright|place=Oxford|publisher=University Press|pages=261–270|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Stevenson|first=Jane|year=2007 |chapter=Translation and the spread of the Greek and Latin alphabets in Late Antiquity|editor=Harald Kittel et al.|title=Translation: an international encyclopedia of translation studies|volume=2|location=Berlin|publisher=de Gruyter|pages=1157–1159|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Edward M|year=1912 |title=An introduction to Greek and Latin palaeography|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon|  ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Woodard|first=Roger D.|year=2008|chapter=Attic Greek|editor-first=Roger D.|editor-last=Woodard|title=The ancient languages of Europe|location=Cambridge|publisher=University Press|pages=14–49|ref=harv}}
{{refend}}
 
== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|Appendix:Greek script}}
{{Commons|Greek alphabet}}
*[http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0370.pdf Unicode 5.1] Greek range
*[http://ellinikasimera.dartmouth.edu/resources/texts/shapes1.html Examples of Greek handwriting]
*[http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/unicode.html Greek Unicode Issues]
*[http://www.unicode.org/faq/greek.html Unicode FAQ – Greek Language and Script]
*[http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/greek.html Unicode 5.1 alphabetic test for Greek Unicode range]
*[http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/ancient-greek-numbers.html Unicode 5.1 numeric test for Greek Unicode range]
*[http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis//unicode/unicode_stories.html Unicode 5.1 test for all Greek-related Unicode ranges]
*[http://kalvesmaki.com/keyboards/grc.html Classical Greek keyboard], a browser-based tool
*Collection of free fonts: [http://www.greekfontsociety.gr/pages/en_typefaces1.html greekfontsociety.gr]
*{{El icon}} Collection of free truetype polytonic fonts: [http://enoriaka.gr/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=748 enoriaka.gr]
 
{{Greek language | 1 | 2 | }}
{{list of writing systems}}
{{Ancient Greece topics}}
 
[[Category:Articles including recorded pronunciations]]
[[Category:Greek alphabet| ]]
[[Category:Greek letters| ]]
 
{{Link FA|la}}

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