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| In [[mathematics]], a '''group extension''' is a general means of describing a [[group (mathematics)|group]] in terms of a particular [[normal subgroup]] and [[quotient group]]. If ''Q'' and ''N'' are two groups, then ''G'' is an '''extension''' of ''Q'' by ''N'' if there is a [[short exact sequence]]
| | I know which all of we have watched the term calorie numerous times over by this point, yet how countless of we have actually thought about what a calorie really is? Probably not too several. When it actually comes down to it, calories are what help you achieve or goals of either losing or gaining weight, so its important to know what a calorie actually is plus how it effects these goals.<br><br>Don't provide [http://safedietplans.com/bmr-calculator bmr calculator] up in the event you blow your diet for the day. Tomorrow is a unique day for eating healthy foods. The worst thing you are able to do is beat yourself up with guilt following overeating or bingeing, plus you're most vulnerable whenever anxious or depressed.<br><br>Food goods rich in fibers: The foods that are especially fairly wealthy inside fibers may better basal metabolic rate at a steady pace. Actually, the fiber content inside the food items would assist to digest or break the food particles at a steady pace. Further, you are able to even add protein wealthy items to strengthen the body muscles. Acai berry, prunes plus grapes may also be further added in a diet chart.<br><br>Then the more we exercise, the better gets a metabolism. And with a higher metabolism we will burn calories more effectively. As for a person with a low metabolism rate, he/she may burn fewer calories within the same amount of food plus store the calories that have been not 'burned' into fats.<br><br>Body Surface Area: The height plus fat lead a lot in determining bmr. The better is the body surface area, the higher is the BMR. Thin, tall persons have a high BMR.<br><br>When you cut back on calories too much, a body will go into "starvation mode' in that it starts storing everything you consume rather of burning through it for gas. If you cut your calories too dramatically we will notice no fat reduction and also be tired or sluggish. To rev up a metabolism plus allow your body run effectively you need to eat throughout the day plus make sure you're eating enough.<br><br>If you wish To lose weight, you want to program on eating a amount of calories that is someplace between a BMR and the total number of calories we burn inside a day. If you wish To gain weight, you require to eat more calories than you burn inside a day. |
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| :<math>1\rightarrow N\rightarrow G\rightarrow Q\rightarrow 1. \,\!</math>
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| If ''G'' is an extension of ''Q'' by ''N'', then ''G'' is a group, ''N'' is a [[normal subgroup]] of ''G'' and the [[quotient group]] ''G''/''N'' is [[isomorphic]] to group ''Q''. Group extensions arise in the context of the '''extension problem''', where the groups ''Q'' and ''N'' are known and the properties of ''G'' are to be determined.
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| An extension is called a '''central extension''' if the subgroup ''N'' lies in the [[center of a group|center]] of ''G''.
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| ==Extensions in general==
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| One extension, the [[direct product of groups|direct product]], is immediately obvious. If one requires ''G'' and ''Q'' to be [[abelian group]]s, then the set of isomorphism classes of extensions of ''Q'' by a given (abelian) group ''N'' is in fact a group, which is [[isomorphic]] to
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| :<math>\operatorname{Ext}^1_{\mathbb Z}(Q,N)</math>; | |
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| cf. the [[Ext functor]]. Several other general classes of extensions are known but no theory exists which treats all the possible extensions at one time. Group extension is usually described as a hard problem; it is termed the '''extension problem'''.
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| To consider some examples, if ''G'' = ''H'' × ''K'', then ''G'' is an extension of both ''H'' and ''K''. More generally, if ''G'' is a [[semidirect product]] of ''K'' and ''H'', then ''G'' is an extension of ''H'' by ''K'', so such products as the [[wreath product]] provide further examples of extensions.
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| ===Extension problem===
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| The question of what groups ''G'' are extensions of ''H'' by ''N'' is called the '''extension problem''', and has been studied heavily since the late nineteenth century. As to its motivation, consider that the [[composition series]] of a finite group is a finite sequence of subgroups {''A''<sub>''i''</sub>}, where each ''A''<sub>''i''+1</sub> is an extension of ''A''<sub>''i''</sub> by some [[simple group]]. The [[classification of finite simple groups]] gives us a complete list of finite simple groups; so the solution to the extension problem would give us enough information to construct and classify all finite groups in general. | |
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| ===Classifying extensions===
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| Solving the extension problem amounts to classifying all extensions of ''H'' by ''K''; or more practically, by expressing all such extensions in terms of mathematical objects that are easier to understand and compute. In general, this problem is very hard, and all the most useful results classify extensions that satisfy some additional condition.
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| ====Classifying split extensions====
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| A '''split extension''' is an extension
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| :<math>1\rightarrow K\rightarrow G\rightarrow H\rightarrow 1</math>
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| for which there is a [[homomorphism]] <math>s\colon H \rightarrow G</math> such that going from ''H'' to ''G'' by ''s'' and then back to ''H'' by the quotient map of the short exact sequence induces the [[identity function|identity map]] on ''H''. In this situation, it is usually said that ''s'' '''splits''' the above [[exact sequence]].
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| Split extensions are very easy to classify, because the [[splitting lemma]] states that an extension is split [[if and only if]] the group ''G'' is a [[semidirect product]] of ''K'' and ''H''. Semidirect products themselves are easy to classify, because they are in one-to-one correspondence with homomorphisms from <math>H\to\operatorname{Aut}(K)</math>, where Aut(''K'') is the [[automorphism]] group of ''K''. For a full discussion of why this is true, see [[semidirect product]].
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| ====Warning====
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| In general in mathematics, an extension of a structure ''K'' is usually regarded as a structure ''L'' of which ''K'' is a substructure. See for example [[field extension]]. However in group theory the opposite terminology has crept in, partly because of the notation <math>\operatorname{Ext}(Q,N)</math>, which reads easily as extensions of ''Q'' by ''N'', and the focus is on the group ''Q''.
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| The paper of Brown and Porter (1996) on the [[Otto Schreier|Schreier]] theory of nonabelian extensions (cited below) uses the terminology that an extension of ''K'' gives a larger structure.
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| ==Central extension==
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| A '''central extension''' of a group ''G'' is a short exact sequence of groups
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| :<math>1\rightarrow A\rightarrow E\rightarrow G\rightarrow 1</math>
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| such that ''A'' is in ''Z''(''E''), the [[center of a group|center]] of the group E. The set of isomorphism classes of central extensions of ''G'' by ''A'' (where ''G'' acts trivially on ''A'') is in one-to-one correspondence with the [[Group cohomology|cohomology]] group ''H''<sup>2</sup>''(G,A)''.
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| Examples of central extensions can be constructed by taking any group ''G'' and any [[abelian group]] ''A'', and setting ''E'' to be ''A''×''G''. This kind of ''split'' example (a [[split extension]] in the sense of the [[extension problem]], since ''G'' is present as a subgroup of ''E'') isn't of particular interest, since it corresponds to the element ''0'' in ''H''<sup>2</sup>''(G,A)'' under the above correspondence. More serious examples are found in the theory of [[projective representation]]s, in cases where the projective representation cannot be lifted to an ordinary [[linear representation]].
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| In the case of finite perfect groups, there is a [[universal perfect central extension]].
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| Similarly, the central [[extension (algebra)|extension]] of a [[Lie algebra]] is an exact sequence
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| :<math>0\rightarrow \mathfrak{a}\rightarrow\mathfrak{e}\rightarrow\mathfrak{g}\rightarrow 0</math>
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| such that <math>\mathfrak{a}</math> is in the center of <math>\mathfrak{e}</math>.
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| There is a general theory of central extensions in Maltsev varieties, see the paper by Janelidze and Kelly listed below.
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| ===Generalization to general extensions===
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| The paper on Group Extensions and ''H''<sup>3</sup> given below provides a similar classification of all extensions of ''G'' by ''A'' in terms of homomorphisms from <math>G\to\operatorname{Out}(A)</math>, a tedious but explicitly checkable existence condition involving H<sup>3</sup>''(G,Z(A))'' and the cohomology group ''H''<sup>2</sup>''(G,Z(A))''.
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| ===Lie groups===
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| In [[Lie group]] theory, central extensions arise in connection with [[algebraic topology]]. Roughly speaking, central extensions of Lie groups by discrete groups are the same as [[covering group]]s. More precisely, a [[connected space|connected]] [[covering space]] ''G''* of a connected Lie group ''G'' is naturally a central extension of ''G'', in such a way that the projection
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| :π: ''G''* → ''G''
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| is a group homomorphism, and surjective. (The group structure on ''G''* depends on the choice of an identity element mapping to the identity in ''G''.) For example, when ''G''* is the [[universal cover]] of ''G'', the kernel of π is the [[fundamental group]] of ''G'', which is known to be abelian (see [[H-space]]). Conversely, given a Lie group ''G'' and a discrete central subgroup ''Z'', the quotient ''G''/''Z'' is a Lie group and ''G'' is a covering space of it. | |
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| More generally, when the groups ''A'', ''E'' and ''G'' occurring in a central extension are Lie groups, and the maps between them are homomorphisms of Lie groups, then the Lie algebra of ''E'' is a central extension of the Lie algebra of ''G'' by the Lie algebra of ''A''. In the terminology of [[theoretical physics]], generators of ''Lie(A)'' are called [[central charge]]s. These generators are in the center of the Lie algebra of ''E''; by [[Noether's theorem]], generators of symmetry groups correspond to conserved quantities, referred to as [[charge (physics)|charges]].
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| The basic examples of central extensions as covering groups are:
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| * the [[spin group]]s, which double cover the [[special orthogonal group]]s, which (in even dimension) double-cover the [[projective orthogonal group]].
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| * the [[metaplectic group]]s, which double cover the [[symplectic group]]s.
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| The case of [[SL2(R)|''SL''<sub>2</sub>(''R'')]] involves a fundamental group that is [[infinite cyclic]]. Here the central extension involved is well known in [[modular form]] theory, in the case of forms of weight ½. A projective representation that corresponds is the [[Weil representation]], constructed from the [[Fourier transform]], in this case on the [[real line]]. Metaplectic groups also occur in [[quantum mechanics]].
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| ==See also==
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| *[[Algebraic extension]]
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| *[[Field extension]]
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| *[[Ring extension]]
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| *[[Group cohomology]]
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| *[[Virasoro algebra]]
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| *[[HNN extension]]
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| *[[Group contraction]]
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| ==References==
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| *{{Citation | first=Saunders | last1=Mac Lane | title=Homology | publisher=[[Springer Verlag]] | year=1975 | isbn=3-540-58662-8 | series=Classics in Mathematics}}
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| * R.L. Taylor, Covering groups of non connected topological groups, ''Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society'', vol. 5 (1954), 753-768.
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| * R. Brown and O. Mucuk, Covering groups of non-connected topological groups revisited, ''Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society'', vol. 115 (1994), 97-110.
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| * R. Brown and T. Porter, On the Schreier theory of non-abelian extensions: generalisations and computations, ''Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy'', vol. 96A (1996), 213-227.
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| * G. Janelidze and G. M. Kelly, [http://www.tac.mta.ca/tac/volumes/7/n10/7-10abs.html Central extensions in Malt'sev varieties], ''Theory and Applications of Categories'', vol. 7 (2000), 219-226.
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| * P. J. Morandi, [http://sierra.nmsu.edu/morandi/notes/GroupExtensions.pdf Group Extensions and ''H''<sup> 3</sup>]. From his collection of short mathematical notes.
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| [[Category:Group theory]]
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I know which all of we have watched the term calorie numerous times over by this point, yet how countless of we have actually thought about what a calorie really is? Probably not too several. When it actually comes down to it, calories are what help you achieve or goals of either losing or gaining weight, so its important to know what a calorie actually is plus how it effects these goals.
Don't provide bmr calculator up in the event you blow your diet for the day. Tomorrow is a unique day for eating healthy foods. The worst thing you are able to do is beat yourself up with guilt following overeating or bingeing, plus you're most vulnerable whenever anxious or depressed.
Food goods rich in fibers: The foods that are especially fairly wealthy inside fibers may better basal metabolic rate at a steady pace. Actually, the fiber content inside the food items would assist to digest or break the food particles at a steady pace. Further, you are able to even add protein wealthy items to strengthen the body muscles. Acai berry, prunes plus grapes may also be further added in a diet chart.
Then the more we exercise, the better gets a metabolism. And with a higher metabolism we will burn calories more effectively. As for a person with a low metabolism rate, he/she may burn fewer calories within the same amount of food plus store the calories that have been not 'burned' into fats.
Body Surface Area: The height plus fat lead a lot in determining bmr. The better is the body surface area, the higher is the BMR. Thin, tall persons have a high BMR.
When you cut back on calories too much, a body will go into "starvation mode' in that it starts storing everything you consume rather of burning through it for gas. If you cut your calories too dramatically we will notice no fat reduction and also be tired or sluggish. To rev up a metabolism plus allow your body run effectively you need to eat throughout the day plus make sure you're eating enough.
If you wish To lose weight, you want to program on eating a amount of calories that is someplace between a BMR and the total number of calories we burn inside a day. If you wish To gain weight, you require to eat more calories than you burn inside a day.