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| [[File:Trouton–Noble experiment.png|thumb|A circular [[capacitor]] ''B'', 7.7 cm in diameter, built from multiple layers of [[mica]] and [[tinfoil]], was fitted into a smooth spherical celluloid ball ''D'' that was covered with conductive paint, and which was suspended by a fine phosphor-bronze wire 37 cm long within a grounded tube. The wire was connected to one electrode of a [[Wimshurst machine]] which kept alternate plates of the capacitor charged to 3000 volts. The opposite plates of the capacitor as well as the celluloid ball were kept at ground voltage by means of a platinum wire that dipped into a sulfuric acid bath that not only served as a conductive [[electrode]], but also damped oscillations and acted as a [[desiccant]]. A mirror attached to the capacitor was viewed through a telescope and allowed fine changes in orientation to be viewed.<ref name="TroutonNoble1903"/>]]
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| The '''Trouton–Noble experiment''' was an attempt to detect motion of the [[Earth]] through the [[luminiferous aether]], and was conducted in 1901–1903 by [[Frederick Thomas Trouton]] (who also developed the [[Trouton's ratio]]) and [[Henry R. Noble|H. R. Noble]]. It was based on a suggestion by [[George FitzGerald]] that a charged [[Parallel plate capacitor|parallel]]-plate [[capacitor]] moving through the aether should orient itself perpendicular to the motion. Like the earlier [[Michelson–Morley experiment]], Trouton and Noble obtained a [[null result]]: no motion relative to the aether could be detected.<ref name="TroutonNoble1903">F. T. Trouton and H. R. Noble, "The mechanical forces acting on a charged electric condenser moving through space," ''Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. A'' '''202''', 165–181 (1903).</ref>
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| <ref>F. T. Trouton and H. R. Noble, "[[s:The Forces Acting on a Charged Condenser moving through Space|The Forces Acting on a Charged Condenser moving through Space.]] ''Proc. Royal Soc.'' '''74''' (479): 132-133 (1903).</ref>
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| This null result was reproduced, with increasing sensitivity, by [[Rudolf Tomaschek]] (1925, 1926), [[Carl T. Chase|Chase]] (1926, 1927) and [[H. C. Hayden|Hayden]] in 1994. | |
| <ref>{{cite journal |author= R. Tomaschek |title= Über Versuche zur Auffindung elektrodynamischer Wirkungen der Erdbewegung in großen Höhen I |journal= Annalen der Physik |year= 1925 |volume= 78 |pages= 743–756|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15380p/f765.image}}</ref>
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| <ref>{{cite journal |author= R. Tomaschek |title= Über Versuche zur Auffindung elektrodynamischer Wirkungen der Erdbewegung in großen Höhen II |journal= Annalen der Physik |year= 1926 |volume= 80 |pages= 509–514|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15382c/f533.image}}</ref>
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| <ref>{{cite journal |author= Carl T. Chase |title= A Repetition of the Trouton-Noble Ether Drift Experiment |journal= [[Physical Review]] |year= 1926 |volume= 28 |issue= 2 |pages= 378–383 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.28.378|bibcode = 1926PhRv...28..378C }}</ref>
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| <ref>{{cite journal |author= Carl T. Chase |title= The Trouton–Noble Ether Drift Experiment |journal= [[Physical Review]] |year= 1927 |volume= 30 |issue= 4 |pages= 516–519 |doi= 10.1103/PhysRev.30.516|bibcode = 1927PhRv...30..516C }}</ref>
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| <ref>{{cite journal |author= R. Tomaschek |title= Bemerkung zu meinen Versuchen zur Auffindung elektrodynamischer Wirkungen in großen Höhen |journal= Annalen der Physik |year= 1927 |volume= 84 |pages= 161–162|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15386r/f170.image}}</ref>
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| <ref>{{cite journal |author= H. C. Hayden |title= High sensitivity Trouton–Noble experiment |journal=Rev. Scientific Instruments|year= 1994 |volume=65|issue=4 |pages=788–792|doi=10.1063/1.1144955|bibcode = 1994RScI...65..788H }}</ref>
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| Such experimental results are now seen, consistent with [[special relativity]], to reflect the validity of the [[principle of relativity]] and the absence of any absolute rest frame (or aether). See also [[Tests of special relativity]].
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| The Trouton–Noble experiment is also related to [[thought experiment]]s such as the "Trouton-Noble paradox", and the "Right-angle lever" or "Lewis-Tolman" paradox". Several solutions have been proposed to solve this kind of paradox, all of them in agreement with special relativity.
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| ==Trouton–Noble Experiment==
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| In the experiment, a suspended [[parallel plate capacitor|parallel]]-plate [[capacitor]] is held by a fine torsion fiber and is charged. If the aether theory were correct, the change in [[Maxwell's equations]] due to the Earth's motion through the aether would lead to a [[torque]] causing the plates to align perpendicular to the motion. This is given by:
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| :<math>\tau=-E'\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}\sin2\alpha'</math>
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| where <math>\tau</math> is the torque, <math>E</math> the energy of the condenser, <math>\alpha</math> the angle between the normal of the plate and the velocity.
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| On the other hand, the assertion of special relativity that Maxwell's equations are invariant for all frames of reference moving at constant velocities would predict no torque (a null result). Thus, unless the aether were somehow fixed relative to the Earth, the experiment is a test of which of these two descriptions is more accurate. Its null result thus confirms [[Lorentz invariance]] of special relativity.
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| However, while the negative experimental outcome can easily be explained in the rest frame of the device, the explanation from the viewpoint of a non-co-moving frame (concerning the question, whether the same torque should arise as in the "aether frame" described above, or whether no torque arises at all) is much more difficult and is called "Trouton-Noble paradox", which can be solved in several ways (see [[#Solutions|Solutions]] below).
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| ==Right-angle lever paradox==
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| [[File:Lewis3.png|left|200px]]
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| The Trouton–Noble paradox is essentially equivalent to a [[thought experiment]] called "right angle lever paradox", first discussed by [[Gilbert Newton Lewis]] and [[Richard Chase Tolman]] in 1909.<ref>{{Citation|author=Lewis, Gilbert N. & Tolman, Richard C.|year=1909|title=[[s:The Principle of Relativity, and Non-Newtonian Mechanics|The Principle of Relativity, and Non-Newtonian Mechanics]]|journal=Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences|volume=44|pages=709–726|doi=10.2307/20022495}}</ref>
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| Suppose a right-angle lever with endpoints ''abc''. In its rest frame, the forces <math>f_y</math> towards ''ba'' and <math>f_x</math> towards ''bc'' must be equal to obtain equilibrium, thus no torque is given by the law of the lever:
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| :<math>\tau'=L_{0}\left(f'_{x}-f'_{y}\right)=0</math>
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| where <math>\tau</math> is the torque, and <math>L_0</math> the rest length of one lever arm. However, due to [[length contraction]], ''ba'' is longer than ''bc'' in a non-co-moving system, thus the law of the lever gives:
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| :<math>\tau=f_{x}\cdot L_{0}-f_{y}\cdot L_{0}\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}=L_{0}\left(f_{x}-f_{y}\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\right)</math>
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| It can be seen that the torque is not zero, which apparently would cause the lever to rotate in the non-co-moving frame. Since no rotation is observed, Lewis and Tolman thus concluded that no torque exists, therefore:
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| :<math>\frac{f_{x}}{f_{y}}=\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}</math>
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| However, as shown by [[Max von Laue]] (1911),<ref name=exam>{{cite journal|author=Laue, Max von|title=Ein Beispiel zur Dynamik der Relativitätstheorie|journal=Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft|volume=13|year=1911|pages=513–518}}
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| :*English Wikisource translation: [[s:Translation:An Example Concerning the Dynamics of the Theory of Relativity|An Example Concerning the Dynamics of the Theory of Relativity]]</ref>
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| this is in contradiction with the relativistic expressions of force,
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| :<math>f_{x}=f'_{x},\ f_{y}=f'_{y}\cdot\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}</math>
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| which gives
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| :<math>\frac{f_{x}}{f_{y}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}</math>
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| When applied to the law of the lever, the following torque is produced:
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| :<math>\tau=-L_{0}\cdot f'_{x}\cdot\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}</math>
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| Which is principally the same problem as in the Trouton-Noble paradox.
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| ==Solutions==
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| The detailed relativistic analysis of both the Trouton-Noble paradox and the Right-angle lever paradox requires care to correctly reconcile, for example, the effects seen by observers in different frames of reference, but ultimately all such theoretical descriptions are shown to give the same result. In both cases an apparent net torque on an object (when viewed from a certain frame of reference) does not result in any rotation of the object, and in both cases this is explained by correctly accounting, in the relativistic way, for the transformation of all the relevant forces, momenta and the accelerations produced by them. The early history of descriptions of this experiment is reviewed by Janssen (1995).<ref name=jan>Janssen (1995), see "Further reading"</ref>
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| ===Laue current===
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| The first solution of the Trouton-Noble paradox was given by [[Hendrik Lorentz]] (1904). His result is based on the assumption, that the torque and momentum due to electrostatic forces, is compensated by the torque and momentum due to molecular forces.<ref>{{Citation|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon|year=1904|title=[[s:Electromagnetic phenomena|Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light]]|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences|volume=6|pages=809–831}}</ref>
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| This was further elaborated by [[Max von Laue]] (1911), who gave the standard solution for these kind of paradoxes. It was based on the so-called "[[Mass–energy equivalence|inertia of energy]]" in its general formulation by [[Max Planck]]. According to Laue, an energy current connected with a certain momentum ("Laue current") is produced in moving bodies by elastic stresses. The resulting mechanical torque in the case of the Trouton–Noble experiment amounts to:
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| :<math>\tau=E'\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}\sin2\alpha'</math>
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| and in the right-angle lever: | |
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| :<math>\tau=L_{0}\cdot f'_{x}\cdot\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}</math>
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| which exactly compensates the electromagnetic torque mentioned above, thus no rotation occurs on both cases. Or in other words: The electromagnetic torque is actually necessary for the uniform motion of a body, ''i.e.'', to hinder the body to rotate due to the mechanical torque caused by elastic stresses.<ref name=exam />
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| <ref>{{cite journal|author=Laue, Max von|title=Zur Dynamik der Relativitätstheorie|journal=Annalen der Physik|volume=340|issue=8|doi=10.1002/andp.19113400808|year=1911|pages=524–542|bibcode = 1911AnP...340..524L }} | |
| :*English Wikisource translation: [[s:Translation:On the Dynamics of the Theory of Relativity|On the Dynamics of the Theory of Relativity]]</ref>
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| <ref>{{cite journal|author=Laue, Max von|title=Bemerkungen zum Hebelgesetz in der Relativitätstheorie|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift|volume=12|year=1911|pages=1008–1010}}
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| :*English Wikisource translation: [[s:Translation:Remarks on the Law of the Lever in the Theory of Relativity|Remarks on the Law of the Lever in the Theory of Relativity]]</ref>
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| <ref>{{cite journal|author=Laue, Max von|title=Zur Theorie des Versuches von Trouton und Noble|journal=Annalen der Physik|volume=343|issue=7|doi=10.1002/andp.19123430705|year=1912|pages=370–384|bibcode = 1912AnP...343..370L }}
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| :*English Wikisource translation: [[s:Translation:On the Theory of the Experiment of Trouton and Noble|On the Theory of the Experiment of Trouton and Noble]]</ref>
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| Since then, many papers appeared which elaborated on Laue's current, providing some modifications or re-interpretations, and included different variants of "hidden" momentum.<ref>See "further reading", especially Nickerson/McAdory (1975), Singal (1993), Teukolsky (1996), Jefimenko (1999), Jackson (2004).</ref>
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| === Reformulations of force and momentum ===
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| Other authors were unsatisfied with the idea that torques and counter-torques arise only because different inertial frames are chosen. Their aim was to replace the standard expressions for momentum and force and thus equilibrium by [[manifest covariance|manifestly Lorentz covariant]] ones from the outset. So when there is no torque in the rest frame of the considered object, then there are no torques in other frames as well.<ref>See "further reading", for instance Butler (1968), Aranoff (1969, 1972), Grøn (1975), Janssen (1995, 2008), Ivezić (2006).</ref> This is in analogy to the [[Electromagnetic mass#4/3 problem|4/3 problem of the electromagnetic mass of electrons]], where similar methods were employed by [[Enrico Fermi]] (1921) and [[Fritz Rohrlich]] (1960): In the standard formulation of relativistic dynamics the [[hyperplane]]s of simultaneity of any observer can be used, while in the Fermi/Rohrlich definition the hyperplane of simultaneity of the object's rest frame should be used.<ref name=jan>Janssen (2008), see further reading</ref> According to Janssen, deciding between Laue's standard model and such alternatives is merely a matter of convention.<ref name=jan />
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| Following this line of reasoning, Rohrlich (1966) distinguished between "apparent" and "true" Lorentz transformations. For example, a "true" transformation of length would be the result of a direct application of the Lorentz transformation, which gives the non-simultaneous positions of the endpoints in another frame. On the other hand, length contraction would be an example of an apparent transformation, since the simultaneous positions of the endpoints in the moving frame must be calculated in addition to the initial Lorentz transformation. Furthermore, Cavalleri/Salgarelli (1969) distinguished between "synchronous" and "asynchronous" equilibrium conditions. In their view, synchronous consideration of forces should only be used for the object's rest frame, while in moving frames the same forces should be considered asynchronously.<ref>Rohrlich (1967), Cavalleri/Salgarelli (1969)</ref>
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| ===Force and acceleration===
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| A solution without compensating forces or redefinitions of force and equilibrium was published by [[Richard C. Tolman]]<ref>{{Citation|author=Tolman, Richard C.|year=1911|title=[[s:The Direction of Force and Acceleration|Non-Newtonian Mechanics :— The Direction of Force and Acceleration]]|journal=Philosophical Magazine|volume=22|issue=129|pages=458–463}}</ref> and [[Paul Sophus Epstein]]<ref>{{cite journal|author=Epstein, P. S.|title=Über relativistische Statik|journal=Annalen der Physik|volume=341|issue=14|year=1911|pages=779–795|bibcode = 1911AnP...341..779E |doi = 10.1002/andp.19113411404 }}
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| :*English Wikisource translation: [[s:Translation:Concerning Relativistic Statics|Concerning Relativistic Statics]]</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Epstein, P. S.|title=Conference on the Michelson-Morley experiment|journal=Contributions from the Mount Wilson Observatory|volume=373|year=1927|pages=45–49|bibcode = 1928CMWCI.373...43E|url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1928CMWCI.373...43E/0000045.000.html}}</ref> in 1911. A similar solution was re-discovered by Franklin (2006).<ref>Franklin (2006, 2008), see "Further reading".</ref>
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| They alluded to the fact that force and acceleration do not always have the same direction, that is, the relation of mass, force and acceleration has [[tensor]] character in relativity. So the role played by the concept of force in relativity is very different from that of Newtonian mechanics.
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| Epstein imagined a massless rod with endpoints ''OM'', which is mounted at point ''O'', and a particle with rest mass ''m'' is mounted at ''M''. The rod encloses the angle <math>\tan\alpha\!</math> with ''O''. Now a force towards ''OM'' is applied at ''M'', and equilibrium in its rest frame is achieved when <math>\tfrac{f'_{x}}{f'_{y}}=\tan\alpha'</math>. As already shown above, these forces have the form in a non-co-moving frame:
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| :<math>f_{x}=f'_{x},\ f_{y}=f'_{y}\cdot\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}},\ \tan\alpha=\tan\alpha'\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}</math>
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| Thus <math>\frac{f_{x}}{f_{y}}=\frac{\tan\alpha}{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}</math>.
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| So the resultant force does not directly point from ''O'' to ''M''. Does this lead to a rotation of the rod? No, because Epstein now considered the accelerations caused by the two forces. The [[Force#Special relativity|relativistic expressions]] in the case, where a mass ''m'' is accelerated by these two forces in the longitudinal and transverse direction, are:
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| :<math>a_{x}=\frac{f_{x}}{m\gamma^{3}},\ a_{y}=\frac{f_{y}}{m\gamma}</math>, where <math>\gamma=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}</math>.
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| Thus <math>\frac{a_{x}}{a_{y}}=\tan\alpha</math>.
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| Thus no rotation occurs in this system as well. Similar considerations are also to be applied to the right-angle lever and Trouton-Noble paradox. So the paradoxes are resolved, because the two accelerations (as vectors) point to the center of gravity of the system (condenser), although the two forces do not.
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| Epstein added, that if one finds it more satisfying to re-establish the parallelism between force and acceleration with which we are accustomed in Newtonian mechanics, one has to include a compensating force, which formally corresponds to Laue's current. Epstein developed such a formalism in the subsequent sections of his 1911 paper.
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| ==See also==
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| * [[History of special relativity]]
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist|2}}
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| ==Further reading==
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| {{div col|2}}
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| ;History
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| * Michel Janssen, "A comparison between Lorentz's ether theory and special relativity in the light of the experiments of Trouton and Noble, Ph.D. thesis (1995). Online: [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/litserv/diss/janssen_diss/TitleTOC.pdf TOC], [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/litserv/diss/janssen_diss/intro.pdf pref.]{{dead link|date=October 2013}}, [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/litserv/diss/janssen_diss/introI.pdf intro-I]{{dead link|date=October 2013}}, [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/litserv/diss/janssen_diss/Chapter1.pdf 1], [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/litserv/diss/janssen_diss/Chapter2.pdf 2], [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/litserv/diss/janssen_diss/introII.pdf intro-II]{{dead link|date=October 2013}}, [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/litserv/diss/janssen_diss/Chapter3.pdf 3], [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/litserv/diss/janssen_diss/Chapter4.pdf 4], [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/litserv/diss/janssen_diss/References.pdf refs].
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| *{{citation |first = Michel H. P. |last = Janssen |title = Drawing the line between kinematics and dynamics in special relativity |url = http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/3895/ |journal = Symposium on Time and Relativity |pages = 1–76 |year = 2008 }}
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| ;Textbooks
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| *{{Citation|author=Tolman, R.C.|year=1917|title=The theory of relativity of motion|chapter=The Right-Angled Lever|pages=539–776|pages=152-153|location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California press|url=http://www.archive.org/details/theoryrelativmot00tolmrich}}
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| *{{cite book|last=Pauli|first=Wolfgang|title=Theory of Relativity|publisher=Dover|location=New York|year=1921/1981|isbn=0-486-64152-X|chapter=Applications to special cases. Trouton's and Noble's experiment|pages=127–130}}
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| *{{cite book|author=Panofsky, Wolfgang; Phillips, Melba|title=Classical electricity and magnetism|year=1962/2005|publisher=Dover|isbn=0-486-43924-0|pages=274, 349}}
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| *{{cite book | last = Jackson | first = John D. | title = Classical Electrodynamics | edition = 3rd | publisher = Wiley | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-471-30932-X}}
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| '''[[American Journal of Physics]]'''
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| *{{cite journal|author=Gamba, A.|title=Physical Quantities in Different Reference Systems According to Relativity|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=35|issue=2|doi=10.1119/1.1973974|year=1967|pages=83–89|bibcode = 1967AmJPh..35...83G }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Butler, J. W.|title=On the Trouton-Noble Experiment|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=36|issue=11|doi=10.1119/1.1974358|year=1968|pages=936–941|bibcode = 1968AmJPh..36..936B}}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Aranoff, S.|title=Torques and Angular Momentum on a System at Equilibrium in Special Relativity|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=37|issue=4|doi=10.1119/1.1975612|year=1969|pages=453–454|bibcode = 1969AmJPh..37..453A }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Furry, W. H.|title=Examples of Momentum Distributions in the Electromagnetic Field and in Matter|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=37|issue=6|doi=10.1119/1.1975729|year=1969|pages=621–636|bibcode = 1969AmJPh..37..621F}}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Butler, J. W.|title=A Proposed Electromagnetic Momentum-Energy 4-Vector for Charged Bodies|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=37|issue=12|doi=10.1119/1.1975297|year=1969|pages=1258–1272|bibcode = 1969AmJPh..37.1258B }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Butler, J. W.|title=The Lewis-Tolman Lever Paradox|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=38|issue=3|doi=10.1119/1.1976326|year=1970|pages=360–368|bibcode = 1970AmJPh..38..360B }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Rohrlich, F.|title=Electromagnetic Momentum, Energy, and Mass|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=38|issue=11|doi=10.1119/1.1976082|year=1970|pages=1310–1316|bibcode = 1970AmJPh..38.1310R }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Sears, Francis W.|title=Another Relativistic Paradox|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=40|issue=5|doi=10.1119/1.1986643|year=1972|pages=771–773|bibcode = 1972AmJPh..40..771S }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Aranoff, S.|title=More on the Right-Angled Lever at Equilibrium in Special Relativity|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=41|issue=9|doi=10.1119/1.1987485|year=1973|pages=1108–1109|bibcode = 1973AmJPh..41.1108A }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Nickerson, J. Charles; McAdory, Robert T.|title=The Trouton-Noble paradox|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=43|issue=7|doi=10.1119/1.9761|year=1975|pages=615–621|bibcode = 1975AmJPh..43..615N }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Cavalleri, G.; Grøn, Ø.; Spavieri, G.; Spinelli, G.|title=Comment on the article "Right-angle lever paradox" by J. C. Nickerson and R. T. McAdory|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=46|issue=1|doi=10.1119/1.11106|year=1978|pages=108–109|bibcode = 1978AmJPh..46..108C }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Grøn, Ø.|title=Relativistics statics and F. W. Sears|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=46|issue=3|doi=10.1119/1.11164|year=1978|pages=249–250|bibcode = 1978AmJPh..46..249G }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Holstein, Barry R.; Swift, Arthur R.|title=Flexible string in special relativity|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=50|issue=10|doi=10.1119/1.13002|year=1982|pages=887–889|bibcode = 1982AmJPh..50..887H }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Singal, Ashok K.|title=On the "explanation" of the null results of Trouton-Noble experiment|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=61|issue=5|doi=10.1119/1.17236|year=1993|pages=428–433|bibcode = 1993AmJPh..61..428S }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Teukolsky, Saul A.|title=The explanation of the Trouton-Noble experiment revisited|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=64|issue=9|doi=10.1119/1.18329|year=1996|pages=1104–1109|bibcode = 1996AmJPh..64.1104T }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Jackson, J. D.|title=Torque or no torque? Simple charged particle motion observed in different inertial frames|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=72|issue=12|doi=10.1119/1.1783902|year=2004|pages=1484–1487|bibcode = 2004AmJPh..72.1484J }}
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| '''[[European Journal of Physics]]'''
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| *{{cite journal|author=Aguirregabiria, J. M.; Hernandez, A.; Rivas, M.|title=A Lewis-Tolman-like paradox|journal=European Journal of Physics|volume=3|issue=1|doi=10.1088/0143-0807/3/1/008|year=1982|pages=30–33|bibcode = 1982EJPh....3...30A }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Franklin, Jerrold|title=The lack of rotation in the Trouton Noble experiment|journal=European Journal of Physics|volume=27|issue=5|doi=10.1088/0143-0807/27/5/024|year=2006|pages=1251–1256|arxiv=physics/0603110|bibcode = 2006EJPh...27.1251F }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Franklin, Jerrold|title=The lack of rotation in a moving right angle lever|journal=European Journal of Physics|volume=29|issue=6|doi=10.1088/0143-0807/29/6/N01|year=2008|pages=N55-N58|arxiv=0805.1196|bibcode = 2008EJPh...29...55F }}
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| '''[[Journal of Physics A]]'''
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| *{{cite journal|author=Jefimenko, Oleg D.|title=The Trouton-Noble paradox|journal=Journal of Physics A|volume=32|issue=20|doi=10.1088/0305-4470/32/20/308|year=1999|pages=3755–3762|bibcode = 1999JPhA...32.3755J }}
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| '''[[Nuovo Cimento]]'''
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| *{{cite journal|author=Arzeliès, H.|title=Sur le problème relativiste du levier coudé|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento|volume=35|issue=3|doi=10.1007/BF02739341|year=1965|pages=783–791}}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Rohrlich, F.|title=True and apparent transformations, classical electrons, and relativistic thermodynamics|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B|volume=45|issue=1|year=1966|pages=76–83|doi=10.1007/BF02710587|bibcode = 1966NCimB..45...76R }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Newburgh, R. G.|title=The relativistic problem of the right-angled lever: The correctness of the Laue solution|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B|volume=61|issue=2|doi=10.1007/BF02710928|year=1969|pages=201–209|bibcode = 1969NCimB..61..201N }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Cavalleri, G.; Salgarelli, G.|title=Revision of the relativistic dynamics with variable rest mass and application to relativistic thermodynamics|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento A|volume=62|issue=3|year=1969|pages=722–754|doi=10.1007/BF02819595|bibcode = 1969NCimA..62..722C }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Aranoff, S.|title=Equilibrium in special relativity|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B|volume=10|issue=1|doi=10.1007/BF02911417|year=1972|pages=155–171|url=http://www.analysis-knowledge.com/Physics/Equilibrium%20in%20Special%20Relativity.pdf|bibcode = 1972NCimB..10..155A }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Grøn, Ø.|title=The asynchronous formulation of relativistic statics and thermodynamics|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B|volume=17|issue=1|doi=10.1007/BF02906436|year=1973|pages=141–165|bibcode = 1973NCimB..17..141G }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Pahor, S.; Strnad, J.|title=Statics in special relativity|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B|volume=20|issue=1|year=1974|pages=105–112|doi=10.1007/BF02721111|bibcode = 1974NCimB..20..105P }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Cavalleri, G.; Spavieri, G.; Spinelli, G.|title=Ropes and pulleys in special relativity (relativistic statics of threads)|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B|volume=25|issue=1|year=1975|pages=348–356|doi=10.1007/BF02737685|bibcode = 1975NCimB..25..348C }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Chamorro, A.; Hernández, A.|title=A synchronous formulation of relativistic statics|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B|volume=41|issue=1|year=1978|pages=236–244|doi=10.1007/BF02726555|bibcode = 1977NCimB..41..236C }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Hernández, A.; Rivas, M.; Aguirregabiria, J. M.|title=A quantitative analysis of the trouton-noble experiment|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B|volume=72|issue=1|year=1982|pages=1–12|doi=10.1007/BF02894929|bibcode = 1982NCimB..72....1H }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Ai, Hsiao-Bai|title=The historical misconception in relativistic statics|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B|volume=108|issue=1|year=1993|pages=7–15|doi=10.1007/BF02874335|bibcode = 1993NCimB.108....7A }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Nieves, L.; Rodriguez, M.; Spavieri, G.; Tonni, E.|title=An experiment of the Trouton-Noble type as a test of the differential form of Faraday's law|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B|volume=116|issue=5|year=2001|page=585|bibcode = 2001NCimB.116..585N }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Spavieri, G.; Gillies, G. T.|title=Fundamental tests of electrodynamic theories: Conceptual investigations of the Trouton-Noble and hidden momentum effects|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B|volume=118|issue=3|year=2003|page=205|bibcode = 2003NCimB.118..205S }}
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| '''[[Foundations of Physics]]'''
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| *{{cite journal|author=Prokhovnik, S. J.; Kovács, K. P.|title=The application of special relativity to the right-angled lever|journal=Foundations of Physics|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.1007/BF00735288|year=1985|pages=167–173|bibcode = 1985FoPh...15..167P }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Spavieri, Gianfranco|title=Proposal for experiments to detect the missing torque in special relativity|journal=Foundations of Physics Letters|volume=3|issue=3|year=1990|pages=291–302|doi=10.1007/BF00666019|bibcode = 1990FoPhL...3..291S }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Ivezić, Tomislav|title=Axiomatic Geometric Formulation of Electromagnetism with Only One Axiom: The Field Equation for the Bivector Field F with an Explanation of the Trouton-Noble Experiment|journal=Foundations of Physics Letters|volume=18|issue=5|doi=10.1007/s10702-005-7533-7|year=2005|pages=401–429|arxiv=physics/0412167|bibcode = 2005FoPhL..18..401I }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Ivezić, Tomislav|title=Four-Dimensional Geometric Quantities versus the Usual Three-Dimensional Quantities: The Resolution of Jackson's Paradox|journal=Foundations of Physics|volume=36|issue=10|year=2006|pages=1511–1534|doi=10.1007/s10701-006-9071-y|arxiv=physics/0602105|bibcode = 2006FoPh...36.1511I }}
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| *{{cite journal|author=Ivezić, Tomislav|title=Trouton Noble Paradox Revisited|journal=Foundations of Physics|volume=37|issue=4–5|doi=10.1007/s10701-007-9116-x|year=2006|pages=747–760|arxiv=physics/0606176|bibcode = 2007FoPh...37..747I}}
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| {{div col end}}
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| ==External links==
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| * Kevin Brown, "[http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath651/kmath651.htm Trouton-Noble and The Right-Angle Lever] at MathPages.
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| * Michel Janssen, "[https://netfiles.umn.edu/users/janss011/home%20page/troutonshort.pdf The Trouton Experiment and ''E'' = ''mc''<sup>2</sup>]," ''Einstein for Everyone'' course at [[University of Minnesota|UMN]] (2002).
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| {{Tests of special relativity}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Trouton-Noble experiment}}
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| [[Category:Aether theories]]
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| [[Category:Physics experiments]]
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| [[Category:1901 in science]]
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| [[Category:1902 in science]]
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| [[Category:1903 in science]]
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| [[Category:Physical paradoxes]]
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