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| {{more footnotes|date=December 2012}}
| | Name: Christa Vaughn<br>Age: 26<br>Country: Italy<br>Town: Tocco Casauria <br>Post code: 65028<br>Street: Via Domenico Morelli 19<br><br>Here is my web site; [http://ruthculloch75.blogspot.com/ diet plans] |
| In [[mathematics]], specifically in [[homology theory]] and [[algebraic topology]], '''cohomology''' is a general term for a [[sequence]] of [[abelian group]]s defined from a [[chain complex|co-chain complex]]. That is, cohomology is defined as the abstract study of '''cochains''', [[chain complex|cocycle]]s, and [[coboundary|coboundaries]]. Cohomology can be viewed as a method of assigning [[algebraic invariant]]s to a topological space that has a more refined [[algebraic structure]] than does [[homology (mathematics)|homology]]. Cohomology arises from the algebraic dualization of the construction of homology. In less abstract language, cochains in the fundamental sense should assign 'quantities' to the ''[[chain (algebraic topology)|chains]]'' of homology theory.
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| From its beginning in [[topology]], this idea became a dominant method in the mathematics of the second half of the twentieth century; from the initial idea of ''homology'' as a topologically invariant relation on ''chains'', the range of applications of homology and cohomology theories has spread out over [[geometry]] and [[abstract algebra]]. The terminology tends to mask the fact that in many applications ''cohomology'', a [[Covariance and contravariance of vectors|contravariant]] theory, is more natural than ''homology''. At a basic level this has to do with [[function (mathematics)|function]]s and [[pullback (differential geometry)|pullback]]s in geometric situations: given spaces ''X'' and ''Y'', and some kind of function ''F'' on ''Y'', for any [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]] ''f'' : ''X'' → ''Y'' composition with ''f'' gives rise to a function ''F'' o ''f'' on ''X''. Cohomology groups often also have a natural product, the [[cup product]], which gives them a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] structure. Because of this feature, cohomology is a stronger invariant than homology, as it can differentiate between certain algebraic objects that homology cannot.
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| ==Definition==
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| In [[algebraic topology]], the cohomology groups for spaces can be defined as follows (see Hatcher). Given a topological space ''X'', consider the chain complex
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| : <math>\cdots \rightarrow C_n \stackrel{ \partial_n}{\rightarrow}\ C_{n-1} \rightarrow \cdots </math> | |
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| as in the definition of [[singular homology]] (or [[simplicial homology]]). Here, the ''C<sub>n</sub>'' are the free abelian groups generated by formal linear combinations of the singular ''n''-simplices in ''X'' and ∂<sub>''n''</sub> is the ''n''<sup>th</sup> boundary operator.
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| Now replace each ''C<sub>n</sub>'' by its [[dual space]] ''C*<sub>n−1</sub>'' = Hom(''C<sub>n</sub>, G''), and ∂<sub>''n''</sub> by its [[dual space#Transpose of a linear map|transpose]]
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| : <math>\delta^n: C_{n-1}^* \rightarrow C_{n}^*</math> | |
| to obtain the cochain complex
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| : <math>\cdots \leftarrow C_{n}^* \stackrel{ \delta^n}{\leftarrow}\ C_{n-1}^* \leftarrow \cdots </math> | |
| Then the '''n<sup>th</sup> cohomology group with coefficients in G''' is defined to be Ker(δ<sup>''n''+1</sup>)/Im(δ<sup>''n''</sup>) and denoted by ''H<sup>n</sup>''(''C''; ''G''). The elements of ''C*<sub>n</sub>'' are called '''singular ''n''-cochains with coefficients in ''G'' ''', and the δ<sup>''n''</sup> are referred to as the '''coboundary operators'''. Elements of Ker(δ<sup>''n''+1</sup>), Im(δ<sup>''n''</sup>) are called '''cocycles''' and '''coboundaries''', respectively.
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| Note that the above definition can be adapted for general chain complexes, and not just the complexes used in singular homology. The study of general cohomology groups was a major motivation for the development of [[homological algebra]], and has since found applications in a wide variety of settings (see [[Cohomology#Cohomology theories|below]]).
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| Given an element φ of ''C*<sub>n-1</sub>'', it follows from the properties of the transpose that <math>\delta^n(\varphi) = \varphi \circ \partial_n</math> as elements of ''C*<sub>n</sub>''. We can use this fact to relate the cohomology and homology groups as follows. Every element φ of Ker(δ<sup>''n''</sup>) has a kernel containing the image of ∂<sub>''n''</sub>. So we can restrict φ to Ker(∂<sub>''n''−1</sub>) and take the quotient by the image of ∂<sub>''n''</sub> to obtain an element ''h''(φ) in Hom(''H<sub>n-1</sub>, G''). If φ is also contained in the image of δ<sup>''n''−1</sup>, then ''h''(φ) is zero. So we can take the quotient by Ker(δ<sup>''n''</sup>), and to obtain a homomorphism
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| :<math>h: H^n (C; G) \rightarrow \text{Hom}(H_n(C),G).</math>
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| It can be shown that this map h is surjective, and that we have a short split exact sequence
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| :<math>0 \rightarrow \ker h \rightarrow H^n(C; G) \stackrel{h}{\rightarrow} \text{Hom}(H_n(C),G) \rightarrow 0.</math> | |
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| ==History==
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| Although cohomology is fundamental to modern [[algebraic topology]], its importance was not seen for some 40 years after the development of homology. The concept of ''dual cell structure'', which [[Henri Poincaré]] used in his proof of his [[Poincaré duality]] theorem, contained the germ of the idea of cohomology, but this was not seen until later.
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| There were various precursors to cohomology. In the mid-1920s, [[James Waddell Alexander II|J. W. Alexander]] and [[Solomon Lefschetz]] founded the [[intersection theory]] of cycles on [[manifold]]s. On an ''n''-[[dimension]]al manifold ''M'', a ''p''-cycle and a ''q''-cycle with nonempty intersection will, if in [[general position]], have intersection a (''p'' + ''q'' − ''n'')-cycle. This enables us to define a multiplication of homology classes
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| :''H''<sub>''p''</sub>(''M'') × ''H''<sub>''q''</sub>(''M'') → ''H''<sub>''p''+''q''−''n''</sub>(''M'').
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| [[James Waddell Alexander II|Alexander]] had by 1930 defined a first cochain notion, based on a ''p''-cochain on a space ''X'' having relevance to the small neighborhoods of the [[diagonal]] in ''X''<sup>''p''+1</sup>.
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| In 1931, [[Georges de Rham]] related homology and exterior [[differential form]]s, proving [[De Rham's theorem]]. This result is now understood to be more naturally interpreted in terms of cohomology.
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| In 1934, [[Lev Pontryagin]] proved the [[Pontryagin duality]] theorem; a result on [[topological group]]s. This (in rather special cases) provided an interpretation of [[Poincaré duality]] and [[Alexander duality]] in terms of [[group (mathematics)|group]] [[character (mathematics)|character]]s.
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| At a 1935 conference in [[Moscow]], [[Andrey Kolmogorov]] and [[James Waddell Alexander II|Alexander]] both introduced cohomology and tried to construct a cohomology product structure.
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| In 1936 [[Norman Steenrod]] published a paper constructing [[Čech cohomology]] by dualizing [[Čech homology]].
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| From 1936 to 1938, [[Hassler Whitney]] and [[Eduard Čech]] developed the [[cup product]] (making cohomology into a graded ring) and [[cap product]], and realized that Poincaré duality can be stated in terms of the cap product. Their theory was still limited to [[wiktionary:finite|finite]] cell complexes.
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| In 1944, [[Samuel Eilenberg]] overcame the technical limitations, and gave the modern definition of [[singular homology]] and cohomology.
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| In 1945, Eilenberg and Steenrod stated the [[Eilenberg–Steenrod axioms|axioms]] defining a homology or cohomology theory. In their 1952 book, ''[[Foundations of Algebraic Topology]]'', they proved that the existing homology and cohomology theories did indeed satisfy their axioms.<ref>Spanier, E. H. (2000) "Book reviews: Foundations of Algebraic Topology" ''Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society'' 37(1): pp. 114–115</ref>
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| In 1948 [[Edwin Spanier]], building on work of Alexander and Kolmogorov, developed [[Alexander–Spanier cohomology]].
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| == Cohomology theories ==
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| ===Eilenberg–Steenrod theories===
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| A ''cohomology theory'' is a family of contravariant [[functor]]s from the [[category (mathematics)|category]] of pairs of [[topological space]]s and [[continuous function]]s (or some [[subcategory]] thereof such as the category of [[CW complex]]es) to the category of [[Abelian group]]s and group [[homomorphism]]s that satisfies the [[Eilenberg–Steenrod axioms]].
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| Some cohomology theories in this sense are:
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| *[[simplicial homology|simplicial cohomology]]
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| *[[singular cohomology]]
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| *[[de Rham cohomology]]
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| *[[Čech cohomology]]
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| {{anchor|Generalized cohomology theories}}
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| ===Axioms and generalized cohomology theories===
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| {{See also|List of cohomology theories}}
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| There are various ways to define cohomology groups (for example [[singular cohomology]], [[Čech cohomology]], [[Alexander–Spanier cohomology]] or [[Sheaf cohomology]]). These give different answers for some exotic spaces, but there is a large class of spaces on which they all agree. This is most easily understood axiomatically: there is a list of properties known as the [[Eilenberg–Steenrod axioms]], and any two constructions that share those properties will agree at least on all finite [[CW complex]]es, for example.
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| One of the axioms is the so-called dimension axiom: if ''P'' is a single point, then ''H<sub>n</sub>''(''P'') = 0 for all ''n'' ≠ 0, and ''H''<sub>0</sub>(''P'') = '''Z'''. We can generalise slightly by allowing an arbitrary abelian group ''A'' in dimension zero, but still insisting that the groups in nonzero dimension are trivial. It turns out that there is again an essentially unique system of groups satisfying these axioms, which are denoted by <math>H_*(X;A)</math>. In the common case where each group ''H<sub>k</sub>''(''X'') is isomorphic to '''Z'''<sup>''r<sub>k</sub>''</sup> for some ''r<sub>k</sub>'' in '''N''', we just have <math>H_k(X;A)=A^{r_k}</math>. In general, the relationship between ''H<sub>k</sub>''(''X'') and <math>H_k(X;A)</math> is only a little more complicated, and is again controlled by the [[Universal coefficient theorem]].
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| More significantly, we can drop the dimension axiom altogether. There are a number of different ways to define groups satisfying all the other axioms, including the following:
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| * The [[stable homotopy theory|stable homotopy groups]] <math>\pi^S_k(X)</math>
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| * Various different flavours of [[cobordism]] groups: <math>MO_*(X), MSO_*(X), MU_*(X)</math> and so on. The last of these (known as [[complex cobordism]]) is especially important, because of the link with [[Formal group|formal group theory]] via a theorem of [[Daniel Quillen]].
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| * Various different flavours of [[K-theory]]: <math>KO_*(X)</math> (real periodic K-theory), <math>kO_*(X)</math> (real connective), <math>KU_*(X)</math> (complex periodic), <math>kU_*(X)</math> (complex connective) and so on.
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| * [[Brown–Peterson cohomology|Brown–Peterson homology]], [[Morava K-theory]], Morava E-theory, and other theories defined using the algebra of formal groups.
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| * Various flavours of [[elliptic cohomology|elliptic homology]]
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| These are called generalised homology theories; they carry much richer information than ordinary homology, but are often harder to compute. Their study is tightly linked (via the [[Brown representability theorem]]) to [[stable homotopy]].
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| A cohomology theory ''E'' is said to be '''multiplicative''' if <math>E^*(X)</math> is a [[graded ring]].
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| ===Other cohomology theories===
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| Theories in a broader sense of ''cohomology'' include:<ref>http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/jefferywinkler2/ktheory3.html&date=2009-10-26+00:45:56</ref>
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| {{div col}}
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| *[[André–Quillen cohomology]]
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| *[[BRST cohomology]]
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| *[[Bonar–Claven cohomology]]
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| *[[Bounded cohomology]]
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| *[[Coherent cohomology]]
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| *[[Crystalline cohomology]]
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| *[[Cyclic cohomology]]
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| *[[Deligne cohomology]]
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| *[[Dirac cohomology]]
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| *[[Étale cohomology]]
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| *[[Flat cohomology]]
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| *[[Galois cohomology]]
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| *[[Gel'fand–Fuks cohomology]]
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| *[[Group cohomology]]
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| *[[Harrison cohomology]]
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| *[[Hochschild cohomology]]
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| *[[Intersection cohomology]]
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| *[[Khovanov Homology]]
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| *[[Lie algebra cohomology]]
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| *[[Local cohomology]]
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| *[[Motivic cohomology]]
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| *[[Non-abelian cohomology]]
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| *[[Perverse cohomology]]
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| *[[Quantum cohomology]]
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| *[[Schur cohomology]]
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| *[[Spencer cohomology]]
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| *[[Topological André–Quillen cohomology]]
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| *[[Topological cyclic cohomology]]
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| *[[Topological Hochschild cohomology]]
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| *[[Γ cohomology]]
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| {{div col end}}
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| ==See also==
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| *[[List of cohomology theories]]
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| ==Notes==
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| {{reflist}}
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| ==References==
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| *[[Allen Hatcher|Hatcher, A.]] (2001) "[http://www.math.cornell.edu/~hatcher/AT/ATpage.html Algebraic Topology]", ''Cambridge U press'', England: Cambridge, p. 198, ISBN 0-521-79160-X and ISBN 0-521-79540-0.
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| *Hazewinkel, M. (ed.) (1988) ''Encyclopaedia of Mathematics: An Updated and Annotated Translation of the Soviet "Mathematical Encyclopaedia"'' Dordrecht, Netherlands: Reidel, Dordrecht, Netherlands, p. 68, ISBN 1-55608-010-7 (or direct link {{springer|title=Cohomology|id=p/c023060}}).
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| *E. Cline, B. Parshall, L. Scott and W. van der Kallen, (1977) "Rational and generic cohomology" ''Inventiones Mathematicae'' 39(2): pp. 143–163.
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| *Asadollahi, Javad and Salarian, Shokrollah (2007) "Cohomology theories for complexes" ''Journal of Pure & Applied Algebra'' 210(3): pp. 771–787.
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| [[Category:Algebraic topology]]
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| [[Category:Cohomology theories|*]]
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| [[Category:Homological algebra]]
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| [[Category:Homology theory]]
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| [[ru:Гомология (топология)#Когомологии]]
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