Negligible function - Revision history

en>John of Reading: Typo/general fixing, replaced: until late 1810s → until the late 1810s using AWB

2014-06-08T11:35:47Z

Typo/general fixing, replaced: until late 1810s → until the late 1810s using AWB

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	~~In [[mathematics]], specifically in the area of [[hyperbolic geometry]], '''Hilbert's arithmetic of ends'''~~ is ~~a method for endowing a geometric set, the set of ideal points or "ends" of a hyperbolic plane, with an algebraic structure as a~~ [~~[field (mathematics)\|field]]~~.		Andrew Simcox is [http://si.dgmensa.org/xe/index.php?document_srl=48014&mid=c0102 free psychic] the name his mothers and fathers gave him and he totally enjoys this name. [http://m-card.co.kr/xe/mcard_2013_promote01/29877 online reader] Ohio is exactly where my house is but my husband wants us to move. Doing ballet is some thing she would by no means give up. Distributing manufacturing is where her primary income arrives from.<br><br>Have a look at my web page - [http://www.prayerarmor.com/uncategorized/dont-know-which-kind-of-hobby-to-take-up-read-the-following-tips/ online reader]
	~~It was introduced by German mathematician [[David Hilbert]]~~.~~<ref>Hilbert, ''"A New Development of Bolyai-Lobahevskian Geometry"'' as Appendix III in ''"Foundations of Geometry"'', 1971~~.~~</ref>~~

	==~~Definitions==~~
	~~===Ends===~~
	~~In a hyperbolic plane, one can define an ''ideal point'' or ''end'' to be an [[equivalence class]~~] of [[Parallel (geometry)\|parallel]] [[Line (mathematics)#Ray\|rays]]. The set of ends can then be topologized in a natural way and forms a circle. This usage of ''end'' is related to but slightly different from that of a [[End (topology)\|topological end]] or a [[End (graph theory)\|graph-theoretic end]]. In the [[Poincaré disk model]] or [[Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry, every ray intersects the [[limit circle]] (also called the ''circle at infinity'') in a unique [[Point (geometry)\|point]], and the ends may be identified with these points. However, the points of the limit circle are not considered to be points of the ~~hyperbolic plane itself. Every hyperbolic [[line (geometry)\|line]] has exactly two distinct ends,~~ and ~~every two distinct ends are the ends of a unique line. For the purpose of Hilbert's arithmetic, it is expedient to denote a line by the ordered pair (''a'', ''b'') of its ends.~~

	~~Hilbert's arithmetic fixes arbitrarily three distinct ends,~~ and ~~labels them as 0, 1, and ∞;. The set ''H'' on which Hilbert defines a field structure is the set of all ends other than ∞, while ''H''' denotes the set of all ends including ∞~~.

	~~===Addition===~~
	[~~[Image~~:~~theo3reflection.png\|right\|thumb\|The composition of three reflections with the same end is a fourth reflection, also with the same end.]]~~
	Hilbert defines the addition of ends using hyperbolic [[Reflection (mathematics)\|reflection]]s. For every end ''x'' in ''H'', its negation −''x'' is defined by constructing the hyperbolic reflection of line (''x'',∞) across the line (0,∞), and choosing −''x'' to be the end of the reflected line.

	The [[Function composition\|composition]] of any three hyperbolic [[Reflection (mathematics)\|reflection]]s whose [[Reflection symmetry\|axes of symmetry]] all share a common end is itself another reflection, across another line with the same end. Based on this "three reflections theorem", given any two ends ''x'' and ''y'' in ''H'', Hilbert defines the sum ''x'' + ''y'' to be the non-~~infinite end of the symmetry axis of the composition of the three reflections through the lines (''x'',∞), (0,∞), and (''y'',∞)~~.

	It follows from the properties of reflections that these operations have the properties required of the negation and addition operations in the algebra of fields: they form the inverse and addition operations of an additive [[abelian group]].

	~~===Multiplication===~~
	~~[[Image:Multiplication.png\|right\|thumb\|Multiplication over ends~~]]
	~~The multiplication operation in the arithmetic of ends~~ is defined (for nonzero elements ''x'' and ''y'' of ''H'') by considering the lines (1,−1), (''x'',−''x''), and (''y'',−''y''). Because of the way −1, −''x'', and −''y'' are defined by reflection across the line (0,∞), each of the three lines (1,−1), (''x'',−''x''), and (''y'',−''y'') is ~~perpendicular~~ to ~~(0,∞).~~

	~~From these three lines, a fourth line can be determined, the axis of symmetry of the composition of the reflections through (''x'',−''x''), (1,−1), and (''y'',−''y'')~~. ~~This line~~ is ~~also perpendicular to (0,∞), and so takes the form (''z'',−''z'') for~~ some ~~end ''z''. Alternatively, the intersection of this line with the line (0,∞) can be found~~ by ~~adding the lengths of the line segments from the crossing with (1,−1) to the crossings of the other two points~~. For exactly one of the two possible choices for ''z'', an even number of the four elements 1, ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' lie on the same side of line (0,∞) as each other. The sum ''x'' + ''y'' is ~~defined to be this choice of ''z''.~~

	Because it can be defined by adding lengths of line segments, this operation satisfies the requirement of a multiplication operation over a field, that it forms an abelian group over the nonzero elements of the field, with identity one. The inverse operation of the group is the reflection of an end across the line (1,−1). This multiplication operation can also be shown to obey the [[distributive property]] together with the addition operation of the field.

	~~==Rigid motions==~~
	~~Let~~ <~~math~~>~~\scriptstyle \Pi~~<~~/math~~> be a ~~hyperbolic plane and ''H'' its field of ends, as introduced above. In the plane <math>\scriptstyle \Pi</math>, we have~~ [~~[rigid motion]]s and their effects on ends as follows~~:

	* The reflection in <math>\scriptstyle(0,\, \infty)</~~math> sends <math>\scriptstyle x\, \in\, H'<~~/~~math> to −''x''.~~

	~~::<math>x'=-x~~.~~\,</math>~~

	* The reflection in (1, −1) gives,

	~~::<math>x'={1 \over x}~~.~~\,<~~/~~math>~~

	* [[Translation]] along <math>\scriptstyle(0,\,\infty)</~~math> that sends ''1'' to any <math>\scriptstyle a\, \in\, H</math>, ''a'' > 0 is represented by~~

	~~::<math>x'=ax.\,</math>~~

	* For any <math>\scriptstyle a\, \in\, H</math>, there is a rigid motion σ<sub>(1/2)''a''</sub> σ<sub>0</sub>, the composition of reflection in the line <math>\scriptstyle(0,\infty)</math> and reflection in the line <math>\scriptstyle((1/2) a,\, \infty)</math>, which is called '''rotation around <math>\scriptstyle \infty</math>''' is given by

	~~::<math>x'=x+a.\,</math>~~

	* The [[rotation]] around the point ''O'', which sends 0 to ~~any given end <math>\scriptstyle a\, \in\, H</math>, effects as~~

	~~::<math>x'=\frac{x+a}{1~~-~~ax}</math>~~

	~~:on ends. The rotation around ''O'' sending 0 to <math>\scriptstyle \infty</math> gives~~

	~~::<math>x'=~~-~~{1 \over x}.</math>~~

	~~For a more extensive treatment than this article can give, confer.<ref>Robin Hartshorne, ''"Geometry: Euclid and Beyond"'', Springer~~-~~Verlag, 2000, section 41<~~/~~ref>~~

	~~==References==~~

	~~<references />~~

	~~{{DEFAULTSORT:Hilbert's Arithmetic Of Ends}}~~
	~~[[Category:Algebraic geometry]]~~
	~~[[Category:Hyperbolic geometry]~~]

en>Devzero2000: /* References */

2013-11-03T20:28:10Z

References

← Older revision		Revision as of 22:28, 3 November 2013
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~The author~~'s ~~name~~ is ~~Andera~~ and ~~she thinks it sounds fairly great~~. ~~Ohio is where his house~~ is and ~~his family loves~~ it. ~~Since he was eighteen he~~'s ~~been operating~~ as an ~~info officer but he ideas~~ on ~~altering~~ it. ~~She~~ is ~~really fond~~ of ~~caving but she doesn~~'t have ~~the time recently~~.<br><br>~~Also visit my web-site -~~ [~~http~~://m-~~card~~.co.kr/xe/~~mcard_2013_promote01~~/~~29877 good psychic~~]		In [[mathematics]], specifically in the area of [[hyperbolic geometry]], '''Hilbert's arithmetic of ends''' is a method for endowing a geometric set, the set of ideal points or "ends" of a hyperbolic plane, with an algebraic structure as a [[field (mathematics)\|field]].
			It was introduced by German mathematician [[David Hilbert]].<ref>Hilbert, ''"A New Development of Bolyai-Lobahevskian Geometry"'' as Appendix III in ''"Foundations of Geometry"'', 1971.</ref>

			==Definitions==
			===Ends===
			In a hyperbolic plane, one can define an ''ideal point'' or ''end'' to be an [[equivalence class]] of [[Parallel (geometry)\|parallel]] [[Line (mathematics)#Ray\|rays]]. The set of ends can then be topologized in a natural way and forms a circle. This usage of ''end'' is related to but slightly different from that of a [[End (topology)\|topological end]] or a [[End (graph theory)\|graph-theoretic end]]. In the [[Poincaré disk model]] or [[Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry, every ray intersects the [[limit circle]] (also called the ''circle at infinity'') in a unique [[Point (geometry)\|point]], and the ends may be identified with these points. However, the points of the limit circle are not considered to be points of the hyperbolic plane itself. Every hyperbolic [[line (geometry)\|line]] has exactly two distinct ends, and every two distinct ends are the ends of a unique line. For the purpose of Hilbert's arithmetic, it is expedient to denote a line by the ordered pair (''a'', ''b'') of its ends.

			Hilbert's arithmetic fixes arbitrarily three distinct ends, and labels them as 0, 1, and ∞;. The set ''H'' on which Hilbert defines a field structure is the set of all ends other than ∞, while ''H''' denotes the set of all ends including ∞.

			===Addition===
			[[Image:theo3reflection.png\|right\|thumb\|The composition of three reflections with the same end is a fourth reflection, also with the same end.]]
			Hilbert defines the addition of ends using hyperbolic [[Reflection (mathematics)\|reflection]]s. For every end ''x'' in ''H'', its negation −''x'' is defined by constructing the hyperbolic reflection of line (''x'',∞) across the line (0,∞), and choosing −''x'' to be the end of the reflected line.

			The [[Function composition\|composition]] of any three hyperbolic [[Reflection (mathematics)\|reflection]]s whose [[Reflection symmetry\|axes of symmetry]] all share a common end is itself another reflection, across another line with the same end. Based on this "three reflections theorem", given any two ends ''x'' and ''y'' in ''H'', Hilbert defines the sum ''x'' + ''y'' to be the non-infinite end of the symmetry axis of the composition of the three reflections through the lines (''x'',∞), (0,∞), and (''y'',∞).

			It follows from the properties of reflections that these operations have the properties required of the negation and addition operations in the algebra of fields: they form the inverse and addition operations of an additive [[abelian group]].

			===Multiplication===
			[[Image:Multiplication.png\|right\|thumb\|Multiplication over ends]]
			The multiplication operation in the arithmetic of ends is defined (for nonzero elements ''x'' and ''y'' of ''H'') by considering the lines (1,−1), (''x'',−''x''), and (''y'',−''y''). Because of the way −1, −''x'', and −''y'' are defined by reflection across the line (0,∞), each of the three lines (1,−1), (''x'',−''x''), and (''y'',−''y'') is perpendicular to (0,∞).

			From these three lines, a fourth line can be determined, the axis of symmetry of the composition of the reflections through (''x'',−''x''), (1,−1), and (''y'',−''y''). This line is also perpendicular to (0,∞), and so takes the form (''z'',−''z'') for some end ''z''. Alternatively, the intersection of this line with the line (0,∞) can be found by adding the lengths of the line segments from the crossing with (1,−1) to the crossings of the other two points. For exactly one of the two possible choices for ''z'', an even number of the four elements 1, ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' lie on the same side of line (0,∞) as each other. The sum ''x'' + ''y'' is defined to be this choice of ''z''.

			Because it can be defined by adding lengths of line segments, this operation satisfies the requirement of a multiplication operation over a field, that it forms an abelian group over the nonzero elements of the field, with identity one. The inverse operation of the group is the reflection of an end across the line (1,−1). This multiplication operation can also be shown to obey the [[distributive property]] together with the addition operation of the field.

			==Rigid motions==
			Let <math>\scriptstyle \Pi</math> be a hyperbolic plane and ''H'' its field of ends, as introduced above. In the plane <math>\scriptstyle \Pi</math>, we have [[rigid motion]]s and their effects on ends as follows:

			* The reflection in <math>\scriptstyle(0,\, \infty)</math> sends <math>\scriptstyle x\, \in\, H'</math> to −''x''.

			::<math>x'=-x.\,</math>

			* The reflection in (1, −1) gives,

			::<math>x'={1 \over x}.\,</math>

			* [[Translation]] along <math>\scriptstyle(0,\,\infty)</math> that sends ''1'' to any <math>\scriptstyle a\, \in\, H</math>, ''a'' > 0 is represented by

			::<math>x'=ax.\,</math>

			* For any <math>\scriptstyle a\, \in\, H</math>, there is a rigid motion σ<sub>(1/2)''a''</sub> σ<sub>0</sub>, the composition of reflection in the line <math>\scriptstyle(0,\infty)</math> and reflection in the line <math>\scriptstyle((1/2) a,\, \infty)</math>, which is called '''rotation around <math>\scriptstyle \infty</math>''' is given by

			::<math>x'=x+a.\,</math>

			* The [[rotation]] around the point ''O'', which sends 0 to any given end <math>\scriptstyle a\, \in\, H</math>, effects as

			::<math>x'=\frac{x+a}{1-ax}</math>

			:on ends. The rotation around ''O'' sending 0 to <math>\scriptstyle \infty</math> gives

			::<math>x'=-{1 \over x}.</math>

			For a more extensive treatment than this article can give, confer.<ref>Robin Hartshorne, ''"Geometry: Euclid and Beyond"'', Springer-Verlag, 2000, section 41</ref>

			==References==

			<references />

			{{DEFAULTSORT:Hilbert's Arithmetic Of Ends}}
			[[Category:Algebraic geometry]]
			[[Category:Hyperbolic geometry]]

en>Rogério Brito: Separate the modern use in crypto from the historical use and formulation in analysis

2012-07-03T02:36:37Z

Separate the modern use in crypto from the historical use and formulation in analysis

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