Invariant factor - Revision history

en>Monkbot: /* References */Task 3: Fix CS1 deprecated coauthor parameter errors

2014-05-12T13:40:39Z

References: Task 3: Fix CS1 deprecated coauthor parameter errors

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:40, 12 May 2014
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~[[Image:Quebecturbine~~.~~JPG\|thumb\|right\|The world's tallest vertical-axis wind turbine, in [[Cap-Chat, Quebec]]]]~~		Let me first begin by introducing myself. My name is Boyd Butts although it is not the name on my beginning certificate. South Dakota is where me and my spouse live and my family loves it. [http://www.hard-ass-porn.com/user/MPolglaze home std test] I used to be unemployed but now I am a librarian and the salary has been really [http://Www.medicinenet.com/image-collection/herpes_simplex_virus_type_1_picture/picture.htm fulfilling]. The factor she adores most is body building and now she is attempting to make cash with it.<br><br>My at [http://www.associazioneitalianafotografi.it/community/gruppi/points-to-know-when-confronted-with-candidiasis/ home std test] std testing website ... std testing at home - [http://www.Hooddirectory.com/how-you-can-cure-an-unpleasant-yeast-infection/ just click the up coming internet page],
	~~<!-- Deleted image removed: [[image:vertical-axis-wind-turbine.jpg\|thumb\|Break down of Vertical Axis Wind Turbine]] -->~~

	~~'''Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs)''' are a type of [[wind turbine]] where the main rotor shaft~~ is set vertically and the main components are located at the base of the turbine. Among the advantages of this arrangement are that generators and gearboxes can be placed close to the ground, which makes these components easier to service and repair, and that VAWTs do not ~~need to be pointed into~~ the ~~wind~~.~~<ref>Jha, Ph.D., A.R. (2010). Wind turbine technology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.</ref> Major drawbacks for the early designs ([[Savonius wind turbine\|Savonius]], [[Darrieus wind turbine\|Darrieus]]~~ and ~~[[giromill]]) included the pulsatory [[torque]] that can be produced during each revolution~~ and ~~the huge bending moments on the blades. Later designs solved the torque issue by using the helical twist of the blades almost similar to [[Gorlov helical turbine\|Gorlov's water turbines]].~~

	~~A VAWT tipped sideways, with the axis perpendicular to the wind streamlines, functions similarly. A more general term that includes this option is "transverse axis wind turbine"~~. ~~For example, the original~~ [~~[Darrieus wind turbine\|Darrieus]] patent,<ref>US Patent 1835018<~~/~~ref> includes both options~~.

	~~Drag~~-~~type VAWTs, such as the Savonius rotor, typically operate at lower [[tip speed ratio\|tipspeed ratios]] than lift~~-~~based VAWTs such as Darrieus rotors and cycloturbines~~.

	~~==General aerodynamics==~~
	~~The forces and the velocities acting in a Darrieus turbine are depicted in figure 1. The resultant velocity vector, <math>\vec{W}<~~/~~math>, is the vectorial sum of the undisturbed upstream air velocity, <math>\vec{U}<~~/~~math>, and the velocity vector of the advancing blade, <math>-\vec{\omega }\times\vec{R}</math>.~~

	~~<math>\vec{W}=\vec{U}+\left( -\vec{\omega }\times\vec{R} \right)</math>~~

	~~[[Image:Forces and velocities.png\|thumb\|right\|Fig1: Forces and velocities acting in~~ a ~~Darrieus turbine for various azimuthal positions]]~~
	~~[[Image:Tassa 5KW 2 ElectronSolarEnergy2.jpg\|Five-kilowatt vertical axis wind turbine\|thumb\|right]]~~

	~~Thus, the oncoming fluid velocity varies, the maximum is found for <math>\theta =0{}^\circ </math>~~ and the ~~minimum is found for <math>\theta =180{}^\circ </math>, where <math>\theta </math> is the azimuthal or orbital blade position. The [~~[angle of attack]], <math>\alpha </math>, is the angle between the oncoming air speed, W, and the blade's chord. The resultant airflow creates a varying, positive angle of attack to the blade in the upstream zone of the machine, switching sign in the downstream zone of the machine.

	~~From geometrical considerations, the resultant airspeed flow and the angle of attack are calculated as follows:~~

	~~<math>W=U\sqrt{1+2\lambda \cos \theta +\lambda ^{2}}</math>~~

	~~<math>\alpha =\tan ^{-1}\left( \frac{\sin \theta }{\cos \theta +\lambda } \right)</math><ref>{{citation \|url=~~ http://~~www~~.~~sciencedirect~~.com/~~science/article/B6V3M-4NT24P6~~-1/2/2441e0d12f1c52c23c3ead5e874baf11\|title= An extended k-epsilon model for turbulent flow through horizontal-axis wind turbines, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Volume 96, Issue 1, January 2008, Pages 103-122\|author= Amina El Kasmi, Christian Masson \|accessdate=2010-04-26}}</ref>

	~~where <math>\lambda =\frac{\omega R}{U}</math> is the [[tip speed ratio]] parameter~~.

	~~The resultant aerodynamic force is decomposed either in [[Lift (force)\|lift~~]~~] (F_L) - [[Drag (physics)\|drag]] (D) components or normal (N) - tangential (T) components~~. The ~~forces are considered acting at 1/4 chord from the leading edge (by convention), the [[pitching moment]]~~ is ~~determined to resolve the aerodynamic forces.~~
	~~The aeronautical terms lift and drag are, strictly speaking, forces across~~ and ~~along the approaching net relative airflow respectively. The tangential force~~ is acting along the blade's velocity and, thus, pulling the blade around, and the normal force is acting radially, and, thus, is acting against the bearings. The lift and the drag force are useful when dealing with the aerodynamic behaviour around each blade, i.e. dynamic stall, boundary layer, etc.; while when dealing with ~~global performance, fatigue loads, etc.,~~ it ~~is more convenient to have a normal-tangential frame~~. The lift and the drag coefficients are usually normalised by the dynamic pressure of the relative airflow, while the normal and the tangential coefficients are usually normalised by the dynamic pressure of undisturbed upstream fluid velocity.

	<~~math~~>C_{L}=\frac{F_L}{{1}/{2}\;\rho AW^{2}}\text{ };\text{ }C_{D}=\frac{D}{{1}/{2}\;\rho AW^{2}}\text{ };\text{ }C_{T}=\frac{T}{{1}/{2}\;\rho AU^{2}}\text{ };\text{ }C_{N}=\frac{N}{{1}/{2}\;\rho AU^{2}}<~~/math~~>

	~~A = Surface Area~~

	~~The amount of power, P, that can be absorbed by a wind turbine.~~

	~~<math> P=\frac{1}{2}C_{p}\rho A\nu^{3}~~ ~~</math>~~

	Where <math>C_{p}</math> is the power coefficient, <math>\rho</math> is the density of the air, <math>A</math> is the swept area of the turbine, and <math>\nu</math> is the wind speed.<ref>{{citation \|url=http://www.~~sciencedirect~~.~~com~~/~~science~~/~~article~~/~~B6VMY~~-~~4N68049~~-1/2/cd2b3f0dc193eb9c6f9260b18e460eb4\|title=Evaluation of different turbine concepts for wind power\|journal= Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews\| volume= 12\| issue= 5\|date= June 2008\| pages= 1419–1434\| ISSN= 1364-~~0321\| DOI= 10.1016/j.rser.2006.05.017\|author= Sandra Eriksson, Hans Bernhoff, Mats Leijon,\|accessdate=2010~~-04-~~26 }}<~~/~~ref>~~

	~~==Advantages of vertical axis wind turbines==~~
	~~VAWTs offer a number of advantages over traditional [[horizontal-axis wind turbine~~]~~]s (HAWTs)~~. ~~They can be packed closer together in wind farms, allowing more in a given space~~. ~~This is not because they are smaller, but rather due to the slowing effect that HAWTs have on the air, forcing designers to separate them by ten times their width~~.~~<ref>Chiras, D. (2010). Wind power basics: a green energy guide. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society Pub.</ref><ref>~~[http://www.~~mnn~~.com/~~earth-matters/energy/stories/fish-hold~~-~~the~~-~~key-to-better-wind-farms Fish hold the key to better wind farms]</ref>~~

	VAWTs are rugged, quiet, omni-directional, and they do not create as much stress on the support structure. They do not require as much wind to generate power, thus allowing them to be closer to the ground. By being closer to the ground they are easily maintained and can be installed on chimneys and similar tall structures.<ref>{{citation \|url=http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/membersonly/jun04/features/apptowind/apptowind.html \|title= Another Approach to Wind\|author= Steven Peace \|accessdate=2010-04-26}}</ref>

	Research at Caltech has also shown that carefully designing wind farms using VAWTs can result in power output ten times as great as a HAWT wind farm the same size.<ref>{{citation \|url=http://phys.org/news/2011-07-~~wind~~-~~turbine~~-~~placement~~-~~tenfold-power.html \|title= Wind-turbine placement produces tenfold power increase, researchers say\|author= Kathy Svitil \|accessdate=2012-07-31}}<~~/~~ref>~~

	~~VAWTs are also enormously quieter than HAWTs, with dB levels at ground level ten meters from~~ the tower measured at around 95 dB for a HAWT{{citation needed\|date=December 2013}} – the sound of passing traffic on a busy highway measured from the road shoulder – versus 38dB for a VAWT{{citation needed\|date=December 2013}} – the sound of whispered conversation. This is due to several factors, starting with the much lower tip speed of VAWTs.

	However most of the above claims are considered debatable by people with experience of wind engineering{{who\|date=December 2013}}. There is very little history of successful VAWT operation, despite their very long history. During this history they have repeatedly been portrayed{{By whom\|date=December 2013}} as innovative, more efficient, more bird-friendly, more cost-effective etc. whereas there is no factual evidence for any of these claims.<ref>http://www.wind-works.org/cms/index.php?id=116</ref>

	~~==Disadvantages of vertical axis wind turbines==~~
	Some disadvantages that the VAWTs possess are that they have a tendency to stall under gusty winds. VAWTs have very low starting torque, as well as dynamic stability problems. The VAWTs are sensitive to off-design conditions and have a low installation height limiting operation to lower wind speed environments.<ref>Jha, Ph.D., A.R. (2010). Wind turbine technology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.</ref>

	The blades of a VAWT are prone to fatigue as the blade spins around the central axis. The vertically oriented blades used in early models twisted and bent as they rotated in the wind. This caused the blades to flex and crack. Over time the blades broke apart, sometimes leading to catastrophic failure. Because of these problems, VAWTs have proven less reliable than [[Wind turbine#Horizontal axis\|HAWT]]~~s.<ref>Chiras, D. (2010). Wind power basics: a green energy guide. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society Pub.</ref>~~

	Research programmes (in 2011) have sought to overcome the inefficiencies associated with VAWTs by reconfiguration of turbine placement within wind farms. It is thought that, despite the lower wind-speed environment at low elevations, "the scaling of the physical forces involved predicts that [VAWT] wind farms can be built using less expensive materials, manufacturing processes, and maintenance than is possible with current wind turbines".<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110713131644.htm</ref>

	~~==References==~~

	~~<references/>~~

	~~==External links==~~
	~~{{Commons category\|Vertical-axis wind turbines}}~~
	* [http://cellar.org/iotd.php?t=9878 Cellar Image of the Day] Shows a VAWT transverse to the wind, yet with the axis horizontal, but such does not allow the machine to be called a HAWT.

	~~{{Wind power}}~~

	~~{{DEFAULTSORT:Vertical Axis Wind Turbine}}~~
	~~[[Category:Vertical axis wind turbines]]~~
	~~[[Category:Wind turbines]]~~

	~~[[sv:Vindkraftverk#Rotor med vertikal axel]]~~

en>Marc van Leeuwen: clarify phrase (by replacing the horrendous Z^+_0 notation)

2013-12-15T06:31:31Z

clarify phrase (by replacing the horrendous Z^+_0 notation)

← Older revision		Revision as of 08:31, 15 December 2013
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~They contact me Emilia~~. ~~One~~ of the ~~issues she loves most~~ is to do ~~aerobics~~ and ~~now she is trying~~ to ~~earn cash~~ with it. For ~~many years I~~'~~ve been operating~~ as ~~a payroll clerk~~. ~~Years~~ in the ~~past we moved~~ to ~~Puerto Rico~~ and ~~my family members enjoys~~ it.<br><br>~~my blog post~~: [http://~~blogzaa~~.com/~~blogs~~/~~post~~/~~9199~~ at ~~home std testing~~]		[[Image:Quebecturbine.JPG\|thumb\|right\|The world's tallest vertical-axis wind turbine, in [[Cap-Chat, Quebec]]]]
			<!-- Deleted image removed: [[image:vertical-axis-wind-turbine.jpg\|thumb\|Break down of Vertical Axis Wind Turbine]] -->

			'''Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs)''' are a type of [[wind turbine]] where the main rotor shaft is set vertically and the main components are located at the base of the turbine. Among the advantages of this arrangement are that generators and gearboxes can be placed close to the ground, which makes these components easier to service and repair, and that VAWTs do not need to be pointed into the wind.<ref>Jha, Ph.D., A.R. (2010). Wind turbine technology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.</ref> Major drawbacks for the early designs ([[Savonius wind turbine\|Savonius]], [[Darrieus wind turbine\|Darrieus]] and [[giromill]]) included the pulsatory [[torque]] that can be produced during each revolution and the huge bending moments on the blades. Later designs solved the torque issue by using the helical twist of the blades almost similar to [[Gorlov helical turbine\|Gorlov's water turbines]].

			A VAWT tipped sideways, with the axis perpendicular to the wind streamlines, functions similarly. A more general term that includes this option is "transverse axis wind turbine". For example, the original [[Darrieus wind turbine\|Darrieus]] patent,<ref>US Patent 1835018</ref> includes both options.

			Drag-type VAWTs, such as the Savonius rotor, typically operate at lower [[tip speed ratio\|tipspeed ratios]] than lift-based VAWTs such as Darrieus rotors and cycloturbines.

			==General aerodynamics==
			The forces and the velocities acting in a Darrieus turbine are depicted in figure 1. The resultant velocity vector, <math>\vec{W}</math>, is the vectorial sum of the undisturbed upstream air velocity, <math>\vec{U}</math>, and the velocity vector of the advancing blade, <math>-\vec{\omega }\times\vec{R}</math>.

			<math>\vec{W}=\vec{U}+\left( -\vec{\omega }\times\vec{R} \right)</math>

			[[Image:Forces and velocities.png\|thumb\|right\|Fig1: Forces and velocities acting in a Darrieus turbine for various azimuthal positions]]
			[[Image:Tassa 5KW 2 ElectronSolarEnergy2.jpg\|Five-kilowatt vertical axis wind turbine\|thumb\|right]]

			Thus, the oncoming fluid velocity varies, the maximum is found for <math>\theta =0{}^\circ </math> and the minimum is found for <math>\theta =180{}^\circ </math>, where <math>\theta </math> is the azimuthal or orbital blade position. The [[angle of attack]], <math>\alpha </math>, is the angle between the oncoming air speed, W, and the blade's chord. The resultant airflow creates a varying, positive angle of attack to the blade in the upstream zone of the machine, switching sign in the downstream zone of the machine.

			From geometrical considerations, the resultant airspeed flow and the angle of attack are calculated as follows:

			<math>W=U\sqrt{1+2\lambda \cos \theta +\lambda ^{2}}</math>

			<math>\alpha =\tan ^{-1}\left( \frac{\sin \theta }{\cos \theta +\lambda } \right)</math><ref>{{citation \|url= http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V3M-4NT24P6-1/2/2441e0d12f1c52c23c3ead5e874baf11\|title= An extended k-epsilon model for turbulent flow through horizontal-axis wind turbines, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Volume 96, Issue 1, January 2008, Pages 103-122\|author= Amina El Kasmi, Christian Masson \|accessdate=2010-04-26}}</ref>

			where <math>\lambda =\frac{\omega R}{U}</math> is the [[tip speed ratio]] parameter.

			The resultant aerodynamic force is decomposed either in [[Lift (force)\|lift]] (F_L) - [[Drag (physics)\|drag]] (D) components or normal (N) - tangential (T) components. The forces are considered acting at 1/4 chord from the leading edge (by convention), the [[pitching moment]] is determined to resolve the aerodynamic forces.
			The aeronautical terms lift and drag are, strictly speaking, forces across and along the approaching net relative airflow respectively. The tangential force is acting along the blade's velocity and, thus, pulling the blade around, and the normal force is acting radially, and, thus, is acting against the bearings. The lift and the drag force are useful when dealing with the aerodynamic behaviour around each blade, i.e. dynamic stall, boundary layer, etc.; while when dealing with global performance, fatigue loads, etc., it is more convenient to have a normal-tangential frame. The lift and the drag coefficients are usually normalised by the dynamic pressure of the relative airflow, while the normal and the tangential coefficients are usually normalised by the dynamic pressure of undisturbed upstream fluid velocity.

			<math>C_{L}=\frac{F_L}{{1}/{2}\;\rho AW^{2}}\text{ };\text{ }C_{D}=\frac{D}{{1}/{2}\;\rho AW^{2}}\text{ };\text{ }C_{T}=\frac{T}{{1}/{2}\;\rho AU^{2}}\text{ };\text{ }C_{N}=\frac{N}{{1}/{2}\;\rho AU^{2}}</math>

			A = Surface Area

			The amount of power, P, that can be absorbed by a wind turbine.

			<math> P=\frac{1}{2}C_{p}\rho A\nu^{3} </math>

			Where <math>C_{p}</math> is the power coefficient, <math>\rho</math> is the density of the air, <math>A</math> is the swept area of the turbine, and <math>\nu</math> is the wind speed.<ref>{{citation \|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VMY-4N68049-1/2/cd2b3f0dc193eb9c6f9260b18e460eb4\|title=Evaluation of different turbine concepts for wind power\|journal= Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews\| volume= 12\| issue= 5\|date= June 2008\| pages= 1419–1434\| ISSN= 1364-0321\| DOI= 10.1016/j.rser.2006.05.017\|author= Sandra Eriksson, Hans Bernhoff, Mats Leijon,\|accessdate=2010-04-26 }}</ref>

			==Advantages of vertical axis wind turbines==
			VAWTs offer a number of advantages over traditional [[horizontal-axis wind turbine]]s (HAWTs). They can be packed closer together in wind farms, allowing more in a given space. This is not because they are smaller, but rather due to the slowing effect that HAWTs have on the air, forcing designers to separate them by ten times their width.<ref>Chiras, D. (2010). Wind power basics: a green energy guide. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society Pub.</ref><ref>[http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/energy/stories/fish-hold-the-key-to-better-wind-farms Fish hold the key to better wind farms]</ref>

			VAWTs are rugged, quiet, omni-directional, and they do not create as much stress on the support structure. They do not require as much wind to generate power, thus allowing them to be closer to the ground. By being closer to the ground they are easily maintained and can be installed on chimneys and similar tall structures.<ref>{{citation \|url=http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/membersonly/jun04/features/apptowind/apptowind.html \|title= Another Approach to Wind\|author= Steven Peace \|accessdate=2010-04-26}}</ref>

			Research at Caltech has also shown that carefully designing wind farms using VAWTs can result in power output ten times as great as a HAWT wind farm the same size.<ref>{{citation \|url=http://phys.org/news/2011-07-wind-turbine-placement-tenfold-power.html \|title= Wind-turbine placement produces tenfold power increase, researchers say\|author= Kathy Svitil \|accessdate=2012-07-31}}</ref>

			VAWTs are also enormously quieter than HAWTs, with dB levels at ground level ten meters from the tower measured at around 95 dB for a HAWT{{citation needed\|date=December 2013}} – the sound of passing traffic on a busy highway measured from the road shoulder – versus 38dB for a VAWT{{citation needed\|date=December 2013}} – the sound of whispered conversation. This is due to several factors, starting with the much lower tip speed of VAWTs.

			However most of the above claims are considered debatable by people with experience of wind engineering{{who\|date=December 2013}}. There is very little history of successful VAWT operation, despite their very long history. During this history they have repeatedly been portrayed{{By whom\|date=December 2013}} as innovative, more efficient, more bird-friendly, more cost-effective etc. whereas there is no factual evidence for any of these claims.<ref>http://www.wind-works.org/cms/index.php?id=116</ref>

			==Disadvantages of vertical axis wind turbines==
			Some disadvantages that the VAWTs possess are that they have a tendency to stall under gusty winds. VAWTs have very low starting torque, as well as dynamic stability problems. The VAWTs are sensitive to off-design conditions and have a low installation height limiting operation to lower wind speed environments.<ref>Jha, Ph.D., A.R. (2010). Wind turbine technology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.</ref>

			The blades of a VAWT are prone to fatigue as the blade spins around the central axis. The vertically oriented blades used in early models twisted and bent as they rotated in the wind. This caused the blades to flex and crack. Over time the blades broke apart, sometimes leading to catastrophic failure. Because of these problems, VAWTs have proven less reliable than [[Wind turbine#Horizontal axis\|HAWT]]s.<ref>Chiras, D. (2010). Wind power basics: a green energy guide. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society Pub.</ref>

			Research programmes (in 2011) have sought to overcome the inefficiencies associated with VAWTs by reconfiguration of turbine placement within wind farms. It is thought that, despite the lower wind-speed environment at low elevations, "the scaling of the physical forces involved predicts that [VAWT] wind farms can be built using less expensive materials, manufacturing processes, and maintenance than is possible with current wind turbines".<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110713131644.htm</ref>

			==References==

			<references/>

			==External links==
			{{Commons category\|Vertical-axis wind turbines}}
			* [http://cellar.org/iotd.php?t=9878 Cellar Image of the Day] Shows a VAWT transverse to the wind, yet with the axis horizontal, but such does not allow the machine to be called a HAWT.

			{{Wind power}}

			{{DEFAULTSORT:Vertical Axis Wind Turbine}}
			[[Category:Vertical axis wind turbines]]
			[[Category:Wind turbines]]

			[[sv:Vindkraftverk#Rotor med vertikal axel]]

en>Qetuth: more specific stub type

2012-01-01T06:54:48Z

more specific stub type

New page

They contact me Emilia. One of the issues she loves most is to do aerobics and now she is trying to earn cash with it. For many years I've been operating as a payroll clerk. Years in the past we moved to Puerto Rico and my family members enjoys it.<br><br>my blog post: [http://blogzaa.com/blogs/post/9199 at home std testing]