Excess chemical potential - Revision history

141.14.232.141: /* References */

2014-08-19T14:10:35Z

References

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	~~[[File:Nullore bilanciato.svg\|right\|200px\|thumb\|Nullor electronic symbol (balanced version)]]~~		28 yrs old Aeroplane Pilot Augustine Ziolkowski from Saint-Jerome, likes becoming a child, [http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=juan30230_blog&y=2014&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=dungeon-hunter-4-hack-tool&GroupKeys=blogs/members/ Dungeon Hunter 4 Hack] and video games. In recent time took some time to visit Kakadu National Park.
	~~[[File:Nullore sbilanciato.svg\|right\|200px\|thumb\|Nullor electronic symbol (unbalanced version)]]~~

	~~A '''nullor''' is a theoretical [[two~~-~~port network]] composed of~~ a ~~[[nullator]] at its input and a [[norator]] at its output.<ref>The name "nullor" was introduced by H.J. Carlin, ''Singular network elements'', IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory, March 1965, vol. CT-11~~, ~~pp. 67-72.</ref> Nullors represent an ideal~~ [~~[amplifier]], having infinite [[Electronic amplifier#Input and output variables\|current, voltage, transconductance and transimpedance]] gain.<ref name=Verhoeven>~~
	~~{{cite book~~
	~~\|author=Verhoeven C J M van Staveren A Monna G L E Kouwenhoven M H L & Yildiz E~~
	~~\|title=Structured electronic design: negative feedback amplifiers~~
	~~\|year= 2003~~
	~~\|publisher=Kluwer Academic~~
	~~\|location=Boston/Dordrecht/London~~
	~~\|isbn=1-4020-7590-1~~
	~~\|pages=§2.2.2 pp. 32–34~~
	~~\|url=~~http://~~books~~.~~google~~.com/~~books?id=p8wDptzCMrUC&pg=PA24&dq=isbn:1402075901&sig=cxJIK6hgY7wKfWc7cV6ZVHT-iDc#PPA32,M1}}~~
	~~</ref> Its [[Two-port network#ABCD-parameters\|transmission parameters]] are all zero, that is, its input-output behavior is summarized with the matrix:~~
	~~::<math>~~
	~~\begin{pmatrix}~~
	~~v_1\\~~
	~~i_1~~
	~~\end{pmatrix}~~
	=
	~~\begin{pmatrix}~~
	~~0 & 0 \\~~
	~~0 & 0~~
	~~\end{pmatrix}~~
	~~\begin{pmatrix}~~
	~~v_2\\~~
	~~i_2~~
	~~\end{pmatrix}~~


	~~\ . <~~/~~math>~~
	~~In [[negative feedback]] circuits, the circuit surrounding the nullor determines the nullor output in such a way as to force the nullor input to zero.~~

	Inserting a nullor in a circuit schematic imposes mathematical constraints on how that circuit must behave, forcing the circuit itself to adopt whatever arrangements are needed to meet the conditions. For example, an ideal [[op amp]] can be modeled using a nullor,<ref name=Verhoeven2>{{cite book
	~~\|author=Verhoeven C J M van Staveren A Monna G L E Kouwenhoven M H L & Yildiz E~~
	~~\|title=§2.6~~
	~~\|isbn=1-4020-7590-1~~
	~~\|url=http:~~//~~books~~.~~google.com/books~~?id=~~p8wDptzCMrUC~~&pg=~~PA24~~&dq=~~isbn:1402075901~~&~~sig=cxJIK6hgY7wKfWc7cV6ZVHT-iDc#PPA43,M1}}~~
	~~</ref> and the textbook analysis of a feedback circuit using an ideal op amp uses the mathematical conditions imposed by the nullor to analyze the circuit surrounding the op amp.~~

	~~== Example: voltage-controlled current sink ==~~
	[[File:Current sink.PNG\|thumbnail\|250px\|Figure 1: Operational-amplifier based current sink. Because the op amp is modeled as a nullor, op amp input variables are zero regardless of the values for its output variables.]]
	~~Figure 1 shows a voltage-controlled current sink.<ref name~~=~~Spencer>~~
	~~{{cite book~~
	~~\|author=Richard R Spencer~~ & ~~Ghausi MS~~
	~~\|title~~=~~Introduction to electronic circuit design~~
	~~\|year= 2003~~
	~~\|publisher=Prentice Hall/Pearson Education~~
	~~\|location=Upper Saddle River NJ~~
	~~\|isbn=0~~-~~201~~-~~36183~~-3
	~~\|pages=§5.1.6 pp. 226–227~~
	~~\|url=http://worldcat.org/isbn/0~~-~~201-36183-3}}~~
	</ref> The sink is intended to draw the same current ''i<sub>OUT</sub>'' regardless of the applied voltage ''V<sub>CC</sub>'' at the output. The value of current drawn is to be set by the input voltage ''v<sub>IN</sub>''. Here the sink is to be analyzed by idealizing the op amp as a nullor.

	Using properties of the input nullator portion of the nullor, the input voltage across the op amp input terminals is zero. Consequently, the voltage across reference resistor ''R<sub>R</sub>'' is the applied voltage ''v<sub>IN</sub>'', making the current in ''R<sub>R</sub>'' simply ''v<sub>IN</sub> / R<sub>R</sub>''. Again using the nullator properties, the input current to the nullor is zero. Consequently, [[Kirchhoff's current law]] at the emitter provides an emitter current of ''v<sub>IN</sub> / R<sub>R</sub>''. Using properties of the norator output portion of the nullor, the nullor provides whatever current is demanded of it, regardless of the voltage at its output. In this case, it provides the transistor base current ''i<sub>B</sub>''. Thus, Kirchhoff's current law applied to the transistor as a whole provides the output current drawn through resistor ''R<sub>C</sub>'' as:

	~~::<math> i_{OUT}~~ = ~~\frac {v_{IN}} {R_{R}} -i_B \ , <~~/~~math>~~

	~~where the base current of the bipolar transistor ''i<sub>B<~~/~~sub>'' is normally negligible provided the transistor remains in [[Bipolar junction transistor#Regions of operation\|active mode]~~]~~. That is, based upon the idealization of a nullor, the output current is controlled by the user-applied input voltage ''v<sub>IN</sub>''~~ and ~~the designer's choice for the reference resistor ''R<sub>R</sub>''~~.

	~~The purpose of the transistor in the circuit is~~ to ~~reduce the portion of the current in ''R<sub>R</sub>'' supplied by the op amp~~. Without the transistor, the current through ''R<sub>C</sub>'' would be ''i<sub>OUT</sub> = ( V<sub>CC</sub> − v<sub>IN</sub> ) / R<sub>C</sub>'', which interferes with the design goal of independence of ''i<sub>OUT</sub>'' from ''V<sub>CC</sub>''. Another practical advantage of the transistor is that the op amp must deliver only the small transistor base current, which is unlikely to tax the op amp's current delivery capability. Of course, only real op amps are current-limited, not nullors.

	The remaining variation of the current with the voltage ''V''<sub>CC</sub> is due to the [[Early effect]], which causes the β of the transistor to change with its collector-to-base voltage ''V''<sub>CB</sub> according to the relation β = β<sub>0</sub> ( 1 + ''V''<sub>CB</sub> / ''V''<Sub>A</sub> ), where ''V''<sub>A</sub> is the so-called Early voltage. Analysis based upon a nullor leads to the [[output resistance]] of this current sink as ''R''<sub>out</sub> = r<sub>O</sub> ( β + 1 ) + ''R''<sub>C</sub>, where r<sub>O</sub> is the small-signal transistor output resistance given by r<sub>O</sub> = ( ''V''<sub>A</sub> + ''V''<sub>CB</sub> ) / ''i''<sub>out</sub>. See [[Current mirror#Output resistance 3\|current mirror]] for the analysis.

	~~Use of the nullor idealization allows design of the circuitry around the op amp. The practical problem remains of designing an op amp that behaves like a nullor.~~

	~~==References==~~
	~~<references/>~~

	~~[[Category:Electrical components]]~~
	~~[[Category:Control theory]]~~
	~~[[Category:Signal processing]]~~
	~~[[Category:Analog circuits]]~~
	~~[[Category:Electronic design]]~~

91.37.128.208: Fix a typo in the defintion of the chemical potential

2013-12-10T01:11:42Z

Fix a typo in the defintion of the chemical potential

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84.60.239.152: formula corrections

2012-02-11T16:50:53Z

formula corrections

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