Euler method - Revision history

en>Hvaara: /* External links */ External link to Rosetta Code

2014-11-06T11:04:21Z

External links: External link to Rosetta Code

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:04, 6 November 2014
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	Hi there, I am Sophia. ~~Playing badminton~~ is a ~~thing that he is totally addicted to~~. ~~Ohio~~ is ~~where his home is and his family members enjoys it~~. ~~My day job is an info officer but~~ I've ~~currently applied for another 1~~.<br><br>~~My site; tarot card readings~~ ([http://~~alles-herunterladen~~.de/~~excellent-advice-for-picking-the-ideal-hobby~~/ ~~simply click the up coming internet site~~])		Hi there, I am Sophia. Invoicing is what I do for a residing but I've usually needed my personal company. Doing ballet is some thing she would never give up. I've usually cherished living in Alaska.<br><br>Review my blog post ... good psychic ([http://www.chk.woobi.Co.kr/xe/?document_srl=346069 http://www.chk.woobi.Co.kr])

en>Salih: Reverted good faith edits by Bojeryd91 (talk). (TW)

2014-02-15T10:22:40Z

Reverted good faith edits by Bojeryd91 (talk). (TW)

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:22, 15 February 2014
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	~~'''Upper and lower probabilities''' are representations of [[imprecise probability]]~~. ~~Whereas [[probability theory]] uses~~ a ~~single number, the [[probability]], to describe how likely an event~~ is to ~~occur, this method uses two numbers: the upper probability of the event and the lower probability of the event~~.		Hi there, I am Sophia. Playing badminton is a thing that he is totally addicted to. Ohio is where his home is and his family members enjoys it. My day job is an info officer but I've currently applied for another 1.<br><br>My site; tarot card readings ([http://alles-herunterladen.de/excellent-advice-for-picking-the-ideal-hobby/ simply click the up coming internet site])

	~~Because [[frequentist statistics]] disallows [[metaprobability\|metaprobabilities]],{{cn\|date=May 2012}} frequentists have had to propose new solutions. [[Cedric Smith (statistician)\|Cedric Smith]]~~ and ~~[[Arthur P. Dempster\|Arthur Dempster]] each developed a theory of upper and lower probabilities~~. ~~[[Glenn Shafer]] developed Dempster's theory further, and it~~ is ~~now known as [[Dempster–Shafer theory]]: see also Choquet(1953).~~
	~~More precisely, in the work of these authors one considers in a [[power set]], <math>P(S)\,\!</math>, a ''mass~~'~~' function <math>m : P(S)\rightarrow R</math> satisfying the conditions~~

	~~:<math>m(\varnothing) = 0 \,\,\,\,\,\,\! ; \,\,\,\,\,\, \sum_{A \in P(X)} m(A) =~~ 1. ~~\,\!~~<~~/math~~>

	~~In turn, a mass is associated with two non-additive continuous measures called '''belief''' and '''plausibility''' defined as follows:~~

	:<~~math~~>~~\operatorname{bel}(A) = \sum_{B \mid B \subseteq A} m(B)\,\,\,\,~~;~~\,\,\,\,~~
	~~\operatorname{pl}~~(~~A) = \sum_{B \mid B \cap A \ne \varnothing} m(B)<~~/~~math>~~

	~~In the case where <math>S<~~/~~math> is infinite there can be <math>\operatorname{bel}<~~/~~math> such that there is no associated mass function. See p. 36 of Halpern (2003). Probability measures are a special case of belief functions in which~~ the ~~mass function assigns positive mass to singletons of~~ the ~~event space only.~~

	~~A different notion of upper and lower probabilities is obtained by the ''lower and upper envelopes'' obtained from a class ''C'' of probability distributions by setting~~

	~~:<math>\operatorname{env_1}(A) = \inf_{p \in C} p(A)\,\,\,\,;\,\,\,\,~~
	~~\operatorname{env_2}(A) = \sup_{p \in C} p(A)</math>~~

	~~The upper and lower probabilities are also related with [[probabilistic logic]]: see Gerla (1994).~~

	~~Observe also that a [[necessity measure]] can be seen as a lower probability and a [[possibility measure]] can be seen as an upper probability.~~

	~~==See also==~~
	*[[Possibility theory]]
	*[[Fuzzy measure theory]]
	*[[Interval finite element]]

	~~==References==~~
	*G. Gerla, Inferences in Probability Logic, ''Artificial Intelligence'' 70(1–2):33–52, 1994.
	*J.Y. Halpern 2003 ''Reasoning about Uncertainty'' MIT Press
	*J. Y. Halpern and R. Fagin, Two views of belief: Belief as generalized probability and belief as evidence. ''Artificial Intelligence'', 54:275–317, 1992.
	*P. J. Huber, ''Robust Statistics''. Wiley, New York, 1980.
	*Saffiotti, A., A Belief-Function Logic, in ''Procs of the 10h AAAI Conference'', San Jose, CA 642–647, 1992.
	*Choquet, G., Theory of Capacities, ''Annales de l'Institut Fourier'' 5, 131–295, 1953.
	*Shafer, G., ''A Mathematical Theory of Evidence'', (Princeton University Press, Princeton), 1976.
	*P. Walley and T. L. Fine, Towards a frequentist theory of upper and lower probability. ''Annals of Statistics'', 10(3)~~:741–761, 1982.~~

	~~[[Category:Exotic probabilities]]~~
	~~[[Category:Probability bounds analysis]]~~

Jitse Niesen: Reverted edits by 117.18.231.60 (talk) to last version by 186.55.143.100

2014-01-14T14:33:57Z

Reverted edits by 117.18.231.60 (talk) to last version by 186.55.143.100

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:33, 14 January 2014
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	~~Hello, my title is Andrew~~ and ~~my wife doesn~~'~~t like it at all~~. ~~Mississippi~~ is the ~~only place I've been residing in but I will~~ have to ~~transfer in~~ a ~~year or two~~. ~~I am an invoicing officer~~ and ~~I'll be promoted quickly. To play domino~~ is ~~something I really enjoy performing~~.<br><br>~~Take~~ a ~~look at my web page~~ - ~~psychics online~~ (~~[http:~~//~~www~~.~~onbizin~~.co.kr/~~xe/?document_srl~~=~~320614 great post to read~~])		'''Upper and lower probabilities''' are representations of [[imprecise probability]]. Whereas [[probability theory]] uses a single number, the [[probability]], to describe how likely an event is to occur, this method uses two numbers: the upper probability of the event and the lower probability of the event.

			Because [[frequentist statistics]] disallows [[metaprobability\|metaprobabilities]],{{cn\|date=May 2012}} frequentists have had to propose new solutions. [[Cedric Smith (statistician)\|Cedric Smith]] and [[Arthur P. Dempster\|Arthur Dempster]] each developed a theory of upper and lower probabilities. [[Glenn Shafer]] developed Dempster's theory further, and it is now known as [[Dempster–Shafer theory]]: see also Choquet(1953).
			More precisely, in the work of these authors one considers in a [[power set]], <math>P(S)\,\!</math>, a ''mass'' function <math>m : P(S)\rightarrow R</math> satisfying the conditions

			:<math>m(\varnothing) = 0 \,\,\,\,\,\,\! ; \,\,\,\,\,\, \sum_{A \in P(X)} m(A) = 1. \,\!</math>

			In turn, a mass is associated with two non-additive continuous measures called '''belief''' and '''plausibility''' defined as follows:

			:<math>\operatorname{bel}(A) = \sum_{B \mid B \subseteq A} m(B)\,\,\,\,;\,\,\,\,
			\operatorname{pl}(A) = \sum_{B \mid B \cap A \ne \varnothing} m(B)</math>

			In the case where <math>S</math> is infinite there can be <math>\operatorname{bel}</math> such that there is no associated mass function. See p. 36 of Halpern (2003). Probability measures are a special case of belief functions in which the mass function assigns positive mass to singletons of the event space only.

			A different notion of upper and lower probabilities is obtained by the ''lower and upper envelopes'' obtained from a class ''C'' of probability distributions by setting

			:<math>\operatorname{env_1}(A) = \inf_{p \in C} p(A)\,\,\,\,;\,\,\,\,
			\operatorname{env_2}(A) = \sup_{p \in C} p(A)</math>

			The upper and lower probabilities are also related with [[probabilistic logic]]: see Gerla (1994).

			Observe also that a [[necessity measure]] can be seen as a lower probability and a [[possibility measure]] can be seen as an upper probability.

			==See also==
			*[[Possibility theory]]
			*[[Fuzzy measure theory]]
			*[[Interval finite element]]

			==References==
			*G. Gerla, Inferences in Probability Logic, ''Artificial Intelligence'' 70(1–2):33–52, 1994.
			*J.Y. Halpern 2003 ''Reasoning about Uncertainty'' MIT Press
			*J. Y. Halpern and R. Fagin, Two views of belief: Belief as generalized probability and belief as evidence. ''Artificial Intelligence'', 54:275–317, 1992.
			*P. J. Huber, ''Robust Statistics''. Wiley, New York, 1980.
			*Saffiotti, A., A Belief-Function Logic, in ''Procs of the 10h AAAI Conference'', San Jose, CA 642–647, 1992.
			*Choquet, G., Theory of Capacities, ''Annales de l'Institut Fourier'' 5, 131–295, 1953.
			*Shafer, G., ''A Mathematical Theory of Evidence'', (Princeton University Press, Princeton), 1976.
			*P. Walley and T. L. Fine, Towards a frequentist theory of upper and lower probability. ''Annals of Statistics'', 10(3):741–761, 1982.

			[[Category:Exotic probabilities]]
			[[Category:Probability bounds analysis]]

en>AnakngAraw: tl

2012-08-31T02:58:32Z

New page

Hello, my title is Andrew and my wife doesn't like it at all. Mississippi is the only place I've been residing in but I will have to transfer in a year or two. I am an invoicing officer and I'll be promoted quickly. To play domino is something I really enjoy performing.<br><br>Take a look at my web page - psychics online ([http://www.onbizin.co.kr/xe/?document_srl=320614 great post to read])