Direct shear test - Revision history

en>Tony1 at 01:41, 9 October 2014

2014-10-09T01:41:37Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 03:41, 9 October 2014
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	~~The author~~ is ~~recognized by the~~ name ~~of Figures Lint~~. ~~To collect coins is what her~~ family members ~~and her enjoy~~. ~~Puerto Rico~~ is ~~where~~ he~~'s been living~~ for ~~years and he will never move~~. ~~Hiring~~ is ~~her day~~ occupation ~~now and she will not change it anytime soon~~.<br><br>My ~~webpage :~~: ~~over the counter std test -~~ [http://~~www.karachicattleexpo~~.com/blog/~~56 Recommended Online site~~] -		Oscar is how he's known as and he completely loves this name. Years in the past he moved to North Dakota and his family members enjoys it. One of the extremely best things in the globe for him is to gather badges but he is having difficulties to discover time for it. Managing people is his occupation.<br><br>My web page: [http://xrambo.com/blog/192034 over the counter std test]

42.115.65.115 at 16:06, 4 March 2014

2014-03-04T16:06:24Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:06, 4 March 2014
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	In [[mathematics]], a '''matrix group''' is a [[group (mathematics)\|group]] ''G'' consisting of [[invertible matrix\|invertible]] [[square matrix\|matrices]] over some [[field (mathematics)\|field]] ''K'', usually fixed in advance, with operations of [[matrix multiplication]] and inversion. More generally, one can consider ''n'' × ''n'' matrices over a commutative [[ring (mathematics)\|ring]] ''R''. (The ~~size of the matrices~~ is restricted to be finite, as any group can be represented as a group of infinite matrices over any field.) A '''linear group''' is an abstract group that is isomorphic to a matrix group over a field ''K'', in other words, admitting a [[faithful representation\|faithful]], finite-dimensional [[group representation\|representation]] over ''K''.		The author is recognized by the name of Figures Lint. To collect coins is what her family members and her enjoy. Puerto Rico is where he's been living for years and he will never move. Hiring is her day occupation now and she will not change it anytime soon.<br><br>My webpage :: over the counter std test - [http://www.karachicattleexpo.com/blog/56 Recommended Online site] -

	~~Any [[finite group]] is linear, because it can be realized~~ by [[permutation matrices]] using [[Cayley's theorem]]. Among [[infinite group theory\|infinite groups]], linear groups form an interesting and tractable class. Examples of groups that are not linear include all "sufficiently large" groups; for example, the ~~infinite symmetric group of permutations~~ of ~~an infinite set~~.
	~~==Basic examples==~~

	~~The set ''M''<sub>''R''</sub>(''n'',''n'') of ''n'' × ''n'' matrices over a [[commutative ring]] ''R''~~ is ~~itself a ring under matrix addition~~ and ~~multiplication~~. ~~The [[group of units]] of ''M''<sub>''R''</sub>(''n'',''n'') is called the [[general linear group]] of ''n'' × ''n'' matrices over the ring ''R'' and~~ is ~~denoted ''GL''<sub>'~~'~~n''</sub>(''R'') or ''GL''(''n'',''R''). All matrix groups are subgroups of some general linear group.~~

	~~== Classical groups ==~~
	~~{{main\|Classical group}}~~
	~~Some particularly interesting matrix groups are the so-called [[classical group]]~~s. When the ring of coefficients of the matrix group is the real numbers, these groups are the [[classical Lie group]]s. When the underlying ring is a finite field the classical groups are [[groups of Lie type]]. These groups play an important role in the [[classification of finite simple groups]].

	~~== Finite groups as matrix groups ==~~
	Every finite group is isomorphic to some matrix group. This is similar to [[Cayley's theorem]] which states that every finite group is isomorphic to some [[permutation group]]. Since the isomorphism property is transitive one need only consider how to form a matrix group from a permutation group.

	~~Let ''G'' be a permutation group on ''n'' points (Ω = {1,2,…,n}) and let {''g''<sub>1</sub>,...,''g''<sub>''k''</sub>} be a generating set~~ for ''G''. The general linear group ''GL''<sub>''n''</sub>('''C''') of ''n''×''n'' matrices over the complex numbers acts naturally on the vector space '''C'''<sup>''n''</sup>. Let ''B''={''b''<sub>1</sub>,…,''b''<sub>''n''</sub>} be the standard basis for '''C'''<sup>''n''</sup>. For each ''g''<sub>''i''</sub> let ''M''<sub>''i''</sub> in ''GL''<sub>''n''</sub>('''C''') be the matrix which sends each ''b''<sub>''j''</sub> to ''b''<sub>''g''<sub>''i''</sub>(''j'')</sub>. That is, if the permutation ''g''<sub>''i''</sub> sends the point ''j'' to ''k'' then ''M''<sub>''i''</sub> sends the basis vector ''b''<sub>''j''</sub> to ''b''<sub>''k''</sub>. Let ''M'' be the subgroup of ''GL''<sub>''n''</sub>('''C''') generated by {''M''<sub>1</sub>,…,''M''<sub>''k''</sub>}. The [[group action\|action]] of ''G'' on Ω is then precisely the same as the action of ''M'' on ''B''. It can be proved that the function taking each ''g''<sub>''i''</sub> to ''M''<sub>''i''</sub> extends to an isomorphism and ~~thus every group is isomorphic to a matrix group~~.

	~~Note that the field ('''C''' in the above case)~~ is ~~irrelevant since ''M'' contains only elements with entries 0 or 1. One can just as easily perform the construction for an arbitrary field since the elements 0~~ and ~~1 exist in every field~~.

	~~As an example, let ''G'' = ''S''~~<~~sub~~>3<~~/sub~~>~~, the [[symmetric group]] on 3 points. Let ''g''<sub>1</sub> = (1,2,3) and ''g''<sub>2</sub> = (1,2). Then~~

	: ~~<math>~~
	~~M_1 = \begin{bmatrix}~~
	~~0 & 0 & 1 \\~~
	~~1 & 0 & 0 \\~~
	~~0 & 1 & 0 \end{bmatrix}~~
	~~</math>~~
	: ~~<math>~~
	~~M_2 = \begin{bmatrix}~~
	~~0 & 1 & 0 \\~~
	~~1 & 0 & 0 \\~~
	~~0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}~~
	~~</math>~~

	''M''<sub>1</sub>''b''<sub>1</sub> = ''b''<sub>2</sub>, ''M''<sub>1</sub>''b''<sub>2</sub> = ''b''<sub>3</sub> and ''M''<sub>1</sub>''b''<sub>3</sub> = ''b''<sub>1</sub>. Likewise, ''M''<sub>2</sub>''b''<sub>1</sub> = ''b''<sub>2</sub>, ''M''<sub>2</sub>''b''<sub>2</sub> = ''b''<sub>1</sub> and ''M''<sub>2</sub>''b''<sub>3</sub> = ''b''<sub>3</sub>.

	~~== Representation theory and character theory ==~~

	~~Linear transformations and matrices are (generally speaking) well~~-understood objects in mathematics and have been used extensively in the study of groups. In particular [[Group representation\|representation theory]] studies homomorphisms from a group into a matrix group and [[~~character theory]] studies [[homomorphisms]] from a group into a field given by the trace of a representation.~~

	~~== Examples ==~~

	* See [[table of Lie groups]], [[list of finite simple groups]], and [[list of simple Lie groups]] for many examples.
	* See [[list of transitive finite linear groups]].
	* In 2000 a longstanding conjecture was resolved when it was shown that the [[braid group]]s ''B<sub>n</sub>'' are linear for all ''n''.<ref>{{citation\|url=http://www.~~ams~~.~~org~~/~~jams~~/2001-14-02/S0894-0347-00-00361-1/S0894-0347-00-00361-1.pdf\|title=Braid groups are linear\|author=Stephen J. Bigelow\|volume=14\|number=2\|pages=471–486\|date=December 13, 2000\|journal=Journal of the American Mathematical Society}}</ref>

	~~==References==~~
	* Brian C. Hall ''Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Representations: An Elementary Introduction'', 1st edition, Springer, 2006. ISBN 0-387-40122-9
	*Wulf Rossmann, ''Lie Groups: An Introduction Through Linear Groups (Oxford Graduate Texts in Mathematics)'', Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-859683-9.
	*''La géométrie des groupes classiques'', J. Dieudonné. Springer, 1955. ISBN 1-114-75188-X
	*''The classical groups'', H. Weyl, ISBN 0-691-05756-7
	~~{{reflist}}~~

	~~==Further reading==~~
	* {{cite book \| first=D.A. \| last=Suprnenko \| title=Matrix groups \| publisher=[[American Mathematical Society]~~] \| year=1976 \| series=Translations of mathematical monographs \| isbn=0~~-~~8218-1595-4 \| volume=45 }}~~

	~~==External links==~~
	*[http://eom.springer.de/L/l059250.htm ''Linear groups''], Encyclopaedia of Mathematics

	~~[[Category:Infinite group theory]]~~
	~~[[Category:Matrices]]~~

en>Tim Slaven: /* See also */ added internal link to shear vane test page

2013-09-19T11:12:03Z

See also: added internal link to shear vane test page

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:12, 19 September 2013
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	~~I am Oscar~~ and ~~I completely dig~~ that ~~name~~. ~~To collect coins~~ is a ~~thing~~ that I'~~m completely addicted~~ to. ~~Puerto Rico~~ is ~~where he~~'~~s always been residing but she requirements~~ to ~~transfer simply because~~ of ~~her family~~. ~~Hiring~~ is ~~his profession~~.<br><br>~~my blog~~ - [http://www.1a-~~pornotube~~.~~com~~/~~user~~/~~GCalvert 1a-pornotube~~.~~com~~]		In [[mathematics]], a '''matrix group''' is a [[group (mathematics)\|group]] ''G'' consisting of [[invertible matrix\|invertible]] [[square matrix\|matrices]] over some [[field (mathematics)\|field]] ''K'', usually fixed in advance, with operations of [[matrix multiplication]] and inversion. More generally, one can consider ''n'' × ''n'' matrices over a commutative [[ring (mathematics)\|ring]] ''R''. (The size of the matrices is restricted to be finite, as any group can be represented as a group of infinite matrices over any field.) A '''linear group''' is an abstract group that is isomorphic to a matrix group over a field ''K'', in other words, admitting a [[faithful representation\|faithful]], finite-dimensional [[group representation\|representation]] over ''K''.

			Any [[finite group]] is linear, because it can be realized by [[permutation matrices]] using [[Cayley's theorem]]. Among [[infinite group theory\|infinite groups]], linear groups form an interesting and tractable class. Examples of groups that are not linear include all "sufficiently large" groups; for example, the infinite symmetric group of permutations of an infinite set.
			==Basic examples==

			The set ''M''<sub>''R''</sub>(''n'',''n'') of ''n'' × ''n'' matrices over a [[commutative ring]] ''R'' is itself a ring under matrix addition and multiplication. The [[group of units]] of ''M''<sub>''R''</sub>(''n'',''n'') is called the [[general linear group]] of ''n'' × ''n'' matrices over the ring ''R'' and is denoted ''GL''<sub>''n''</sub>(''R'') or ''GL''(''n'',''R''). All matrix groups are subgroups of some general linear group.

			== Classical groups ==
			{{main\|Classical group}}
			Some particularly interesting matrix groups are the so-called [[classical group]]s. When the ring of coefficients of the matrix group is the real numbers, these groups are the [[classical Lie group]]s. When the underlying ring is a finite field the classical groups are [[groups of Lie type]]. These groups play an important role in the [[classification of finite simple groups]].

			== Finite groups as matrix groups ==
			Every finite group is isomorphic to some matrix group. This is similar to [[Cayley's theorem]] which states that every finite group is isomorphic to some [[permutation group]]. Since the isomorphism property is transitive one need only consider how to form a matrix group from a permutation group.

			Let ''G'' be a permutation group on ''n'' points (Ω = {1,2,…,n}) and let {''g''<sub>1</sub>,...,''g''<sub>''k''</sub>} be a generating set for ''G''. The general linear group ''GL''<sub>''n''</sub>('''C''') of ''n''×''n'' matrices over the complex numbers acts naturally on the vector space '''C'''<sup>''n''</sup>. Let ''B''={''b''<sub>1</sub>,…,''b''<sub>''n''</sub>} be the standard basis for '''C'''<sup>''n''</sup>. For each ''g''<sub>''i''</sub> let ''M''<sub>''i''</sub> in ''GL''<sub>''n''</sub>('''C''') be the matrix which sends each ''b''<sub>''j''</sub> to ''b''<sub>''g''<sub>''i''</sub>(''j'')</sub>. That is, if the permutation ''g''<sub>''i''</sub> sends the point ''j'' to ''k'' then ''M''<sub>''i''</sub> sends the basis vector ''b''<sub>''j''</sub> to ''b''<sub>''k''</sub>. Let ''M'' be the subgroup of ''GL''<sub>''n''</sub>('''C''') generated by {''M''<sub>1</sub>,…,''M''<sub>''k''</sub>}. The [[group action\|action]] of ''G'' on Ω is then precisely the same as the action of ''M'' on ''B''. It can be proved that the function taking each ''g''<sub>''i''</sub> to ''M''<sub>''i''</sub> extends to an isomorphism and thus every group is isomorphic to a matrix group.

			Note that the field ('''C''' in the above case) is irrelevant since ''M'' contains only elements with entries 0 or 1. One can just as easily perform the construction for an arbitrary field since the elements 0 and 1 exist in every field.

			As an example, let ''G'' = ''S''<sub>3</sub>, the [[symmetric group]] on 3 points. Let ''g''<sub>1</sub> = (1,2,3) and ''g''<sub>2</sub> = (1,2). Then

			: <math>
			M_1 = \begin{bmatrix}
			0 & 0 & 1 \\
			1 & 0 & 0 \\
			0 & 1 & 0 \end{bmatrix}
			</math>
			: <math>
			M_2 = \begin{bmatrix}
			0 & 1 & 0 \\
			1 & 0 & 0 \\
			0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}
			</math>

			''M''<sub>1</sub>''b''<sub>1</sub> = ''b''<sub>2</sub>, ''M''<sub>1</sub>''b''<sub>2</sub> = ''b''<sub>3</sub> and ''M''<sub>1</sub>''b''<sub>3</sub> = ''b''<sub>1</sub>. Likewise, ''M''<sub>2</sub>''b''<sub>1</sub> = ''b''<sub>2</sub>, ''M''<sub>2</sub>''b''<sub>2</sub> = ''b''<sub>1</sub> and ''M''<sub>2</sub>''b''<sub>3</sub> = ''b''<sub>3</sub>.

			== Representation theory and character theory ==

			Linear transformations and matrices are (generally speaking) well-understood objects in mathematics and have been used extensively in the study of groups. In particular [[Group representation\|representation theory]] studies homomorphisms from a group into a matrix group and [[character theory]] studies [[homomorphisms]] from a group into a field given by the trace of a representation.

			== Examples ==

			* See [[table of Lie groups]], [[list of finite simple groups]], and [[list of simple Lie groups]] for many examples.
			* See [[list of transitive finite linear groups]].
			* In 2000 a longstanding conjecture was resolved when it was shown that the [[braid group]]s ''B<sub>n</sub>'' are linear for all ''n''.<ref>{{citation\|url=http://www.ams.org/jams/2001-14-02/S0894-0347-00-00361-1/S0894-0347-00-00361-1.pdf\|title=Braid groups are linear\|author=Stephen J. Bigelow\|volume=14\|number=2\|pages=471–486\|date=December 13, 2000\|journal=Journal of the American Mathematical Society}}</ref>

			==References==
			* Brian C. Hall ''Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Representations: An Elementary Introduction'', 1st edition, Springer, 2006. ISBN 0-387-40122-9
			*Wulf Rossmann, ''Lie Groups: An Introduction Through Linear Groups (Oxford Graduate Texts in Mathematics)'', Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-859683-9.
			*''La géométrie des groupes classiques'', J. Dieudonné. Springer, 1955. ISBN 1-114-75188-X
			*''The classical groups'', H. Weyl, ISBN 0-691-05756-7
			{{reflist}}

			==Further reading==
			* {{cite book \| first=D.A. \| last=Suprnenko \| title=Matrix groups \| publisher=[[American Mathematical Society]] \| year=1976 \| series=Translations of mathematical monographs \| isbn=0-8218-1595-4 \| volume=45 }}

			==External links==
			*[http://eom.springer.de/L/l059250.htm ''Linear groups''], Encyclopaedia of Mathematics

			[[Category:Infinite group theory]]
			[[Category:Matrices]]

en>Argyriou: major cleanup

2012-08-14T06:30:54Z

major cleanup

New page

I am Oscar and I completely dig that name. To collect coins is a thing that I'm completely addicted to. Puerto Rico is where he's always been residing but she requirements to transfer simply because of her family. Hiring is his profession.<br><br>my blog - [http://www.1a-pornotube.com/user/GCalvert 1a-pornotube.com]