Aitoff projection - Revision history

en>Strebe: Irrelevant

2014-12-28T21:19:29Z

Irrelevant

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:19, 28 December 2014
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	~~{{Refimprove\|date=May 2009}}~~		over the counter std test ([http://www.noonptm.com/fox/upload/index.php?do=/profile-3715/info/ inquiry]) name of the writer is Figures. His family members lives in South Dakota but his spouse wants them to transfer. Supervising is my occupation. It's not a common factor but what she likes doing is foundation jumping and now she is attempting to make money with it.
	~~In [[aeronautical engineering]],~~ the ~~term '''overall pressure ratio''' is defined as the ratio of the [~~[stagnation pressure]] as measured at the front and rear of the compressor of a [[gas turbine]] engine. Generally speaking, a higher overall pressure ratio implies higher efficiency, but the engine will usually weigh more, so there is a compromise.

	~~==History of overall pressure ratios==~~
	Early jet engines had limited pressure ratios due to construction inaccuracies of the compressors and various material limits. For instance, the [[Junkers Jumo 004]] from [[World War II]] had an overall pressure ratio 3.14:1. ~~The immediate post-war [[SNECMA Atar]] improved this marginally to 5~~.~~2:1~~. ~~Improvements in materials, compressor blades, and especially the introduction of multi~~-spool engines with several different rotational speeds, led to the much higher pressure ratios common today. Modern civilian engines generally operate between 30 and 40:1. The three-spool [[Rolls-Royce Trent\|Rolls-Royce Trent 900]~~] used on the [[Airbus A380]], for instance, has a pressure ratio of about 39:1.~~

	~~==Advantages of high overall pressure ratios==~~
	~~A high overall pressure ratio permits a larger area ratio nozzle to be fitted on the jet engine. This means that more~~ of the ~~heat energy~~ is ~~converted to jet speed, and energetic efficiency improves~~. ~~This is reflected~~ in ~~improvements in the engine's [[Thrust specific fuel consumption\|specific fuel consumption]].~~

	~~==Disadvantages of high overall pressure ratios==~~
	One of the primary limiting factors on pressure ratio in modern designs is that the air heats up as it is compressed. As the air travels through the compressor stages it can reach temperatures that pose a material failure risk for the compressor blades. This is especially true for the last compressor stage, and the outlet temperature from this stage is a common [[figure of merit]] for engine designs. For civilian engines, the pressure ratio can be adjusted as the aircraft climbs, allowing it to offset some of the heat load through the lowered pressure and temperature of the high-altitude air. This is one of the many reasons airliners climb to high altitude as quickly as possible.

	Military engines are often forced to work under conditions that maximize the heating load. For instance, the [[General Dynamics F-111]] was required to operate at speeds of Mach 1.1 at [[sea level]]. As a side-effect of these wide operating conditions, and generally older technology in most cases, military engines typically have lower overall pressure ratios. The [[Pratt & Whitney TF30]] used on the F-111 had a pressure ratio of about 20:1, while newer engines like the [[General Electric F110]] and [[Pratt & Whitney F135]] have improved this to ~~about 30:1~~.

	~~An additional issue~~ is ~~weight: a higher compression ratio implies a heavier engine, which in turn costs fuel to carry around~~. ~~Thus, for a particular construction technology and set of flight plans an optimal overall pressure ratio can be determined.~~

	~~==Examples==~~
	~~{\| class="wikitable"~~
	\|-
	~~! Engine~~
	~~! Overall pressure ratio~~
	~~! Major applications~~
	~~! Notes~~
	\|-
	~~\| [[General Electric GE90]]~~
	~~\| 42:1~~
	~~\| [[Boeing 777\|777]]~~
	\|
	\|-
	~~\| [[General Electric CF6#CF6-80C2\|General Electric CF6]]~~
	~~\| 30.5:1~~
	~~\| [[Boeing 747\|747]], [[Boeing 767\|767]], [[Airbus A300\|A300]], [[McDonnell Douglas MD-11\|MD-11]], [[Lockheed C-5 Galaxy\|C-5]]~~
	\|
	\|-
	~~\| [[General Electric F110]]~~
	~~\| 30:1~~
	~~\| [[Grumman F-14 Tomcat\|F-14]], [[McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle\|F-15]], [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon\|F-16]]~~
	\|
	\|-
	~~\| [[Pratt & Whitney TF30]]~~
	~~\| 20:1~~
	~~\| [[Grumman F-14 Tomcat#F-14A\|F-14]], [[General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark\|F-111]]~~
	\|
	\|-
	~~\| [[Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593]]~~
	~~\| 15.5:1~~
	~~\| [[Concorde]]~~
	~~\| The [[Concorde]]~~'s ~~Olympus engines received additional compression from its supersonic inlet, yielding an effective overall pressure ratio of 80:1.<ref>Concorde: story of a supersonic pioneer~~
	~~By Kenneth Owen</ref>~~
	\|}

	~~==Differences from other similar terms==~~
	~~The term should~~ not ~~be confused with the more familiar term [[compression ratio]] applied to [[reciprocating engine]]s. Compression ratio is~~ a ~~ratio of volumes. In the case of the [[Otto cycle]] reciprocating engine, the maximum expansion of the charge~~ is ~~limited by the mechanical movement of the pistons (or rotor),~~ and ~~so the compression can be measured by simply comparing the volume of the cylinder with the piston at the top and bottom of its motion. The same~~ is not true of the "open ended" gas turbine, where operational and structural issues are the limiting factors. Nevertheless the two terms are similar in that they both offer a quick way of determining overall efficiency relative to ~~other engines of the same class~~.

	~~The broadly equivalent measure of [[rocket engine]] efficiency is chamber pressure/exit pressure, and this ratio can be over 2000 for the [[Space Shuttle Main Engine]].~~

	~~==Compression ratio versus overall pressure ratio==~~
	~~For any given gas mix compression ratio and overall pressure ratio are interrelated as follows:~~
	~~{\| border="1"~~
	\|-
	~~! CR~~
	~~\|\| 1:1 \|\| 3:1 \|\| 5:1 \|\| 10:1 \|\| 15:1 \|\| 20:1 \|\| 25:1 \|\| 35:1~~
	\|-
	~~! PR~~
	~~\|\| 1:1 \|\| 4:1 \|\|10:1 \|\| 22:1 \|\| 40:1 \|\| 56:1 \|\| 75:1 \|\| 110:1~~
	\|}

	~~The reason for this difference is that [[compression ratio]] is defined via the volume reduction,~~
	~~: <math>CR=\frac{V_1}{V_2}</math>,~~
	~~Pressure ratio is defined as the [[pressure]] increase~~
	~~: <math>PR=\frac{P_2}{P_1}</math>.~~
	~~From the [[combined gas law]] we get:~~
	~~: <math>\frac{P_1V_1}{T_1} = \frac{P_2V_2}{T_2} \Rightarrow~~
	~~\frac{V_1}{V_2}=\frac{T_1}{T_2} \frac{P_2}{P_1} \Leftrightarrow~~
	~~CR=\frac{T_1}{T_2} PR</math>~~
	~~Since ''T<sub>2</sub>'' is much higher than ''T<sub>1</sub>'' (compressing gases puts work into them, i.e. heats them up), ''CR'' is much lower than ''PR''.~~

	~~==See also==~~
	* [[Brayton cycle]]
	* [[Carnot cycle]]
	* [[Compression ratio]]
	* [[Engine pressure ratio]] (EPR)

	~~==References==~~
	~~{{Reflist}}~~

	~~{{aviation lists}}~~

	~~[[Category:Engineering ratios]]~~
	~~[[Category:Gas turbines]]~~

en>Chienlit: /* See also / ==See also== {{Portal|Atlas}} List of map projections

2013-12-22T17:28:09Z

See also: ==See also== {{Portal|Atlas}} * List of map projections

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:28, 22 December 2013
Line 1:		Line 1:
	The ~~writer is recognized by~~ the ~~title~~ of ~~Figures Lint~~. He used to be ~~unemployed but now he~~ is a ~~meter reader~~. ~~What I adore performing~~ is to ~~gather badges but I've been taking~~ on ~~new things lately~~. ~~Minnesota has usually been his home but his wife desires them~~ to ~~transfer~~.<br><br>~~My web page~~ - [~~http~~://~~glskating~~.~~com~~/~~groups~~/~~stay-yeast-infection-free-with-these-helpful-suggestions~~/ ~~glskating~~.~~com~~]		{{Refimprove\|date=May 2009}}
			In [[aeronautical engineering]], the term '''overall pressure ratio''' is defined as the ratio of the [[stagnation pressure]] as measured at the front and rear of the compressor of a [[gas turbine]] engine. Generally speaking, a higher overall pressure ratio implies higher efficiency, but the engine will usually weigh more, so there is a compromise.

			==History of overall pressure ratios==
			Early jet engines had limited pressure ratios due to construction inaccuracies of the compressors and various material limits. For instance, the [[Junkers Jumo 004]] from [[World War II]] had an overall pressure ratio 3.14:1. The immediate post-war [[SNECMA Atar]] improved this marginally to 5.2:1. Improvements in materials, compressor blades, and especially the introduction of multi-spool engines with several different rotational speeds, led to the much higher pressure ratios common today. Modern civilian engines generally operate between 30 and 40:1. The three-spool [[Rolls-Royce Trent\|Rolls-Royce Trent 900]] used on the [[Airbus A380]], for instance, has a pressure ratio of about 39:1.

			==Advantages of high overall pressure ratios==
			A high overall pressure ratio permits a larger area ratio nozzle to be fitted on the jet engine. This means that more of the heat energy is converted to jet speed, and energetic efficiency improves. This is reflected in improvements in the engine's [[Thrust specific fuel consumption\|specific fuel consumption]].

			==Disadvantages of high overall pressure ratios==
			One of the primary limiting factors on pressure ratio in modern designs is that the air heats up as it is compressed. As the air travels through the compressor stages it can reach temperatures that pose a material failure risk for the compressor blades. This is especially true for the last compressor stage, and the outlet temperature from this stage is a common [[figure of merit]] for engine designs. For civilian engines, the pressure ratio can be adjusted as the aircraft climbs, allowing it to offset some of the heat load through the lowered pressure and temperature of the high-altitude air. This is one of the many reasons airliners climb to high altitude as quickly as possible.

			Military engines are often forced to work under conditions that maximize the heating load. For instance, the [[General Dynamics F-111]] was required to operate at speeds of Mach 1.1 at [[sea level]]. As a side-effect of these wide operating conditions, and generally older technology in most cases, military engines typically have lower overall pressure ratios. The [[Pratt & Whitney TF30]] used on the F-111 had a pressure ratio of about 20:1, while newer engines like the [[General Electric F110]] and [[Pratt & Whitney F135]] have improved this to about 30:1.

			An additional issue is weight: a higher compression ratio implies a heavier engine, which in turn costs fuel to carry around. Thus, for a particular construction technology and set of flight plans an optimal overall pressure ratio can be determined.

			==Examples==
			{\| class="wikitable"
			\|-
			! Engine
			! Overall pressure ratio
			! Major applications
			! Notes
			\|-
			\| [[General Electric GE90]]
			\| 42:1
			\| [[Boeing 777\|777]]
			\|
			\|-
			\| [[General Electric CF6#CF6-80C2\|General Electric CF6]]
			\| 30.5:1
			\| [[Boeing 747\|747]], [[Boeing 767\|767]], [[Airbus A300\|A300]], [[McDonnell Douglas MD-11\|MD-11]], [[Lockheed C-5 Galaxy\|C-5]]
			\|
			\|-
			\| [[General Electric F110]]
			\| 30:1
			\| [[Grumman F-14 Tomcat\|F-14]], [[McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle\|F-15]], [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon\|F-16]]
			\|
			\|-
			\| [[Pratt & Whitney TF30]]
			\| 20:1
			\| [[Grumman F-14 Tomcat#F-14A\|F-14]], [[General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark\|F-111]]
			\|
			\|-
			\| [[Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593]]
			\| 15.5:1
			\| [[Concorde]]
			\| The [[Concorde]]'s Olympus engines received additional compression from its supersonic inlet, yielding an effective overall pressure ratio of 80:1.<ref>Concorde: story of a supersonic pioneer
			By Kenneth Owen</ref>
			\|}

			==Differences from other similar terms==
			The term should not be confused with the more familiar term [[compression ratio]] applied to [[reciprocating engine]]s. Compression ratio is a ratio of volumes. In the case of the [[Otto cycle]] reciprocating engine, the maximum expansion of the charge is limited by the mechanical movement of the pistons (or rotor), and so the compression can be measured by simply comparing the volume of the cylinder with the piston at the top and bottom of its motion. The same is not true of the "open ended" gas turbine, where operational and structural issues are the limiting factors. Nevertheless the two terms are similar in that they both offer a quick way of determining overall efficiency relative to other engines of the same class.

			The broadly equivalent measure of [[rocket engine]] efficiency is chamber pressure/exit pressure, and this ratio can be over 2000 for the [[Space Shuttle Main Engine]].

			==Compression ratio versus overall pressure ratio==
			For any given gas mix compression ratio and overall pressure ratio are interrelated as follows:
			{\| border="1"
			\|-
			! CR
			\|\| 1:1 \|\| 3:1 \|\| 5:1 \|\| 10:1 \|\| 15:1 \|\| 20:1 \|\| 25:1 \|\| 35:1
			\|-
			! PR
			\|\| 1:1 \|\| 4:1 \|\|10:1 \|\| 22:1 \|\| 40:1 \|\| 56:1 \|\| 75:1 \|\| 110:1
			\|}

			The reason for this difference is that [[compression ratio]] is defined via the volume reduction,
			: <math>CR=\frac{V_1}{V_2}</math>,
			Pressure ratio is defined as the [[pressure]] increase
			: <math>PR=\frac{P_2}{P_1}</math>.
			From the [[combined gas law]] we get:
			: <math>\frac{P_1V_1}{T_1} = \frac{P_2V_2}{T_2} \Rightarrow
			\frac{V_1}{V_2}=\frac{T_1}{T_2} \frac{P_2}{P_1} \Leftrightarrow
			CR=\frac{T_1}{T_2} PR</math>
			Since ''T<sub>2</sub>'' is much higher than ''T<sub>1</sub>'' (compressing gases puts work into them, i.e. heats them up), ''CR'' is much lower than ''PR''.

			==See also==
			* [[Brayton cycle]]
			* [[Carnot cycle]]
			* [[Compression ratio]]
			* [[Engine pressure ratio]] (EPR)

			==References==
			{{Reflist}}

			{{aviation lists}}

			[[Category:Engineering ratios]]
			[[Category:Gas turbines]]

en>Vanjagenije at 17:06, 22 July 2012

2012-07-22T17:06:18Z

New page

The writer is recognized by the title of Figures Lint. He used to be unemployed but now he is a meter reader. What I adore performing is to gather badges but I've been taking on new things lately. Minnesota has usually been his home but his wife desires them to transfer.<br><br>My web page - [http://glskating.com/groups/stay-yeast-infection-free-with-these-helpful-suggestions/ glskating.com]

Aitoff projection - Revision history

en>Strebe: Irrelevant

en>Chienlit: /* See also */ ==See also== {{Portal|Atlas}} * List of map projections

en>Vanjagenije at 17:06, 22 July 2012

en>Chienlit: /* See also / ==See also== {{Portal|Atlas}} List of map projections